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Bullying: What Schools and Parents Can Do

By Cohn and Canter for National Association Of School Psychologists

Bullying is a widespread problem in our schools and communities. This behavior encompasses physical aggression, threats, teasing, and harassment. Although it can lead to violence, bullying typically is not categorized with more serious forms of school violence involving weapons, vandalism, or physical harm. It is, however, an unacceptable anti-social behavior that is learned through influences in the environment, e.g., home, school, peer groups, even the media. As such, it also can be unlearned or, better yet, prevented.

A bully is someone who directs physical, verbal, or psychological aggression or harassment toward others, with the goal of gaining power over or dominating another individual. Research indicates that bullying is more prevalent in boys than girls, though this difference decreases when considering indirect aggression (such as verbal threats).

A victim is someone who is repeatedly exposed to aggression from peers in the form of physical attacks, verbal assaults, or psychological abuse. Victims are more likely to be boys and to be physically weaker than peers. They generally do not have many, if any, good friends and may display poor social skills and academic difficulties in school.

Facts about Bullying

• Bullying is the most common form of violence in our society; between 15% and 30% of students are bullies or victims.
• A recent report from the American Medical Association on a study of over 15,000 6th-10th graders estimates that approximately 3.7 million youths engage in, and more than 3.2 million are victims of, moderate or serious bullying each year.
• Since 1992, there have been 250 violent deaths in schools that involved multiple victims. In virtually every school shooting, bullying has been a factor.
• Membership in either bully or victim groups is associated with school drop-out, poor psychosocial adjustment, criminal activity and other negative long-term consequences.
• Direct, physical bullying increases in elementary school, peaks in middle school, and declines in high school. Verbal abuse, on the other hand, remains constant. The U.S. Department of Justice reports that younger students are more likely to be bullied than older students.
• Over two-thirds of students believe that schools respond poorly to bullying, with a high percentage of students believing that adult help is infrequent and ineffective.
• 25% of teachers see nothing wrong with bullying or putdowns and consequently intervene in only 4% of bullying incidents.

Why Do Some Children and Adolescents Become Bullies?

Most bullying behavior develops in response to multiple factors in the environment -- at home, school and within the peer group. There is no one cause of bullying. Common contributing factors include:

• Family factors: The frequency and severity of bullying is related to the amount of adult supervision that children receive -- bullying behavior is reinforced when it has no or inconsistent consequences. Additionally, children who observe parents and siblings exhibiting bullying behavior, or who are themselves victims, are likely to develop bullying behaviors. When children receive negative messages or physical punishment at home, they tend to develop negative self concepts and expectations, and may therefore attack before they are attacked; bullying others gives them a sense of power and importance.
• School factors: Because school personnel often ignore bullying, children can be reinforced for intimidating others. Bullying also thrives in an environment where students are more likely to receive negative feedback and negative attention than in a positive school climate that fosters respect and sets high standards for interpersonal behavior.
• Peer group factors: Children may interact in a school or neighborhood peer group that advocates, supports, or promotes bullying behavior. Some children may bully peers in an effort to "fit in," even though they may be uncomfortable with the behavior.

Why Do Some Children and Adolescents Become Victims?

• Victims signal to others that they are insecure, primarily passive and will not retaliate if they are attacked. Consequently, bullies often target children who complain, appear physically or emotionally weak, and seek attention from peers.
• Studies show that victims have a higher prevalence of overprotective parents or school personnel; as a result, they often fail to develop their own coping skills.
• Many victims long for approval; even after being rejected, some continue to make ineffective attempts to interact with the victimizer.

How Can Bullying Lead to Violence?

• Bullies have a lack of respect for others` basic human rights; they are more likely to resort to violence to solve problems without worry of the potential implications.
• Both bullies and victims show higher rates of fighting than their peers.
• Recent school shootings show how victims` frustration with bullying can turn into vengeful violence.

What Can Schools Do?

Today, schools typically respond to bullying, or other school violence, with reactive measures. However, installing metal detectors or surveillance cameras or hiring police to patrol the halls have no tangible positive results. Policies of "Zero Tolerance" (severe consequence for any behavior defined as dangerous such as bullying or carrying a weapon) rely on exclusionary measures (suspension, expulsion) that have long-term negative effects.

Instead, researchers advocate school-wide prevention programs that promote a positive school and community climate. Existing programs can effectively reduce the occurrence of bullying; in fact, one program decreased peer victimization by 50%. Such programs require the participation and commitment of students, parents, educators and members of the community. Effective school programs include:

• Early intervention. Researchers advocate intervening in elementary or middle school, or as early as preschool. Group and building-wide social skills training is highly recommended, as well as counseling and systematic aggression interventions for students exhibiting bullying and victim behaviors.
• Parent training. Parents must learn to reinforce their children`s positive behavior patterns and model appropriate interpersonal interactions.
• Teacher training. Training can help teachers identify and respond to potentially damaging victimization as well as to implement positive feedback and modeling to address appropriate social interactions.
• Attitude change. Researchers maintain that society must cease defending bullying behavior as part of growing up or with the attitude of "kids will be kids." Bullying can be stopped! School personnel should never ignore bullying behaviors.
• Positive school environment. Schools with easily understood rules of conduct, smaller class sizes, and fair discipline practices report less violence. A positive school climate will reduce bullying and victimization.

What Can Parents Do?

• Contact the school`s psychologist, counselor or social worker and ask for help around bullying or victimization concerns. Become involved in school programs to counteract bullying.
• Provide positive feedback to children for appropriate social behaviors and model interactions that do not include bullying or aggression.
• Use alternatives to physical punishment, such as the removal of privileges, as a consequence for bullying behavior.
• Stop bullying behavior as it is happening and begin working on appropriate social skills early.

RESOURCES

Batsche, G. (1997). Bullying. In Bear, Minke & Thomas (Eds.), Children`s Needs: Development, Problems and Alternatives (pp. 171-180). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

Bonds, M & Stoker, S. (2000). Bully-proof Your School. Longmont, CO: Sopris West.

Webster-Stratton, C. (1999). How to Promote Children`s Social and Emotional Competence. Sage.

Online Resources

National Mental Health and Education Center for Children and Families
www.naspcenter.org

Safe and Responsive Schools Project
www.indiana.edu/~safeschl/

Safe Schools/Healthy Students Action Center
www.sshsac.org/

National Resource Center for Safe Schools
www.nwrel.org/safe

This article was developed from a number of resources including the chapter by George Batsche.

Hazing Prevention Strategies

By Richard Sigal for GuidanceChannel.com

Once believed the province of college fraternity men, hazing now has reared its ugly head in other venues: high schools and middle schools. That's not to say it never before existed in public schools, but increased publicity about hazing at all levels has brought it to the surface. How much hazing is going on? Hazing experts have gut feelings, but in truth, it's impossible to accurately compile data on a secret, underground activity.

Hazing ranges from innocuous stuff like being forced to wear silly clothes, through serious physical and sexual assault, to death. Since 1970, one college student has died every year from hazing. For the purpose of this article I will offer the following definition of hazing:

Hazing is an act that as an explicit or implicit condition for initiation to, admission into, affiliation with, or continued membership in a group or organization, could be seen by a reasonable person as endangering the physical health of an individual or causing mental distress to an individual through, for example, humiliating, intimidating, or demeaning treatment; destroying or removing personal or private property; involving the consumption of alcohol, other drugs, or other substances; or violating any of the policies of the particular educational institution.
(Adapted from the Cornell University Task Force on Hazing.)

At Glenbrook North High School in Northbrook, Illinois, a "powderpuff" football game turned violent. Senior girls and a few boys were videotaped abusing junior girls by kicking and beating them, and showering the victims with offensive filth including feces and fish guts. More recently, while at a Pennsylvania football camp, some Mepham High School (in the Bellmore-Merrick school district on Long Island) varsity football players sodomized younger players with a broomstick, pine cones and golf balls. In light of these and other horrific hazing incidents, school districts across the country are scrambling to address the hazing issue in an attempt to prevent and/or eliminate this harmful behavior.

Preventing hazing requires an understanding of its structure and its roots. There are both psychological and sociological dynamics involved. Underlying hazing activities are the psychological needs of the hazers and of their victims. Those who haze have themselves been hazed. They need to dominate, control and wield power over submissive, usually younger, powerless victims. They need to repay what they received. For the victims, there are needs to prove oneself, be accepted by, and identify with, the members of the group into which they desire to gain admission.

Several sociological issues lay the foundation for hazing: institutional power structure, history, tradition, education, community values, machismo and peer pressure -- to name a few.

The prevention of hazing begins at the top of the school district hierarchy. It is the duty of the controlling authority, usually the Board of Education, to develop a clear and comprehensive, zero-tolerance policy that bans any and all hazing activities. In no uncertain terms they must let those below understand that there will be no hazing in this district or the consequences will be severe. Down through the chain of command, the same message must be administered. Particularly, athletic directors and coaches must have a clear understanding of what hazing entails, its definition and its potential consequences for students and for the district. When coaches look the other way and/or accept or facilitate hazing, it is sure to continue.

Hazing exists because of a tradition of hazing in the district or at least in the particular team or organization. The practice continues year after year because those who have been hazed want to pass along what was done to them. There is a tendency for hazing to escalate. Some students want not only to do, but outdo what they experienced. Those in control have to break that cycle. Coaches must explain the history of the tradition to his/her players, and then clearly state that it is finished

.

Districts must create and implement anti-hazing programs for students, coaches, administrators and organization advisors -- and don’t forget the parents. Community support is crucial. In districts where hazing incidents have occurred, some parents have circled the wagons, called their lawyers, stonewalled investigators, and in some places even threatened the victims' parents when they spoke out.

School districts should assign administrators to investigate hazing allegations, and publicize phone numbers students can utilize to reach these people to report incidents of hazing anonymously without fear of repercussions.

Commonly ingrained in hazing activities are macho themes. Initiates are often asked to prove themselves in masculine ways. Peer pressure forces them to accept abuse, prove they are "men" (girls, too), and then to shut up about it. Whistle-blower victims are often condemned by fellow students, and in some cases, end up in therapy finishing their high school careers elsewhere. Strategies should be put in place to support and protect students who have the strength to overcome the peer pressure and report hazing.

To thwart hazing in organizations where students hold varying degrees of seniority and power, instead of making rookies responsible for drudge work while older members watch or berate them, all tasks should be allocated equally, regardless of seniority. Coaches or advisors also should establish mentoring programs. It is doubtful that younger members will respect or want to bond with someone who demeans them, more than with an older member or player who takes them under their wing, cares for them, and teaches them the ropes.

Therefore, to establish anti-hazing prevention programs, school districts need to:

• create a firm policy at the Board of Education level
• examine the district's history of hazing traditions
• establish and regularly administer anti-hazing educational programs
• assign a teacher or administrator to investigate hazing allegations, or signs of hazing
• publish a phone number to contact this person anonymously
• create support strategies for students who report hazing
• develop mentoring programs in clubs and teams, and allocate all tasks equally

Hazing is a serious concern. Students are suffering from physical and emotional abuse; school districts are finding themselves in court; coaches and administrators are losing their jobs. And for what?

Bullying Behavior: Mobilizing the Silent Majority

By Dr. Ted Feinberg for National Association Of School Psychologists

Over the past few years school districts, communities, law enforcement agencies and concerned groups and associations have made a concerted effort to raise the level of public awareness about the problem of bullying in our school age population. National campaigns, public service announcements, and a proliferation of programs and products have been marketed as ways to effectively reduce bullying from the landscape inhabited by our children and teens.

We have examined with a fair degree of intensity the constellation of behaviors that create a bully, as well as those patterns that seem to contribute to or result in a youngster who is targeted to be victimized by a bully. We are able to differentiate the passive victim from the provocative victim and some of the gender differences in the ways in which bullying behaviors are manifested.

The time has come for us to focus on a component that is frequently a part of many bullying situations, namely the bystanders. This group of individuals is often on-site when the bullying takes place and can, by virtue of their presence, add increased levels of direct or indirect encouragement to the bully.

Olweus( 2001 ) outlines the Bullying Circle where he diagrams the different roles that students can assume in an acute bullying situation. In addition to the bully, there can be the “follower/henchmen who take an active part in the situation, but do not start the bullying." We also have the supporter bullies who support the bully, but do not take an active part in the bullying behavior. In addition, there are the passive supporter bullies who like the bullying, but do not display open support. We also have the disengaged onlooker who may watch the bullying interaction but take the position that the event is none of their business and therefore do not take a stand to help. There can also be the possible defender who dislikes the bullying and thinks that they should help the victim, but falls short of any direct intervention. Finally, we may have the defender of the victim who not only dislikes the bullying, but also actively tries to help or assist the person being bullied or victimized.

Bystanders may comprise about 85% of the students in a school. They tend to remain inactive and silent, and, while aware of the bullying, often do not know how or what to do or they choose to avoid taking a stand in support of the victim. We find that bystanders often claim that they are not sure what actions to take when they observe a bullying event. Many will confess that they are afraid of retaliation or being ostracized by their social group of friends. Some are worried that they will make the situation worse by interceding. Many bystanders are quite critical and concerned that appropriate adults do not or will not step in to interrupt the bullying behavior. Bystanders may run the risk of becoming desensitized to repeated acts of bullying. Their silence may be viewed by the bully as tacit approval or support for his/her actions. Many bystanders may become despondent, guilty or depressed as they review their lack of response to what they know to be offensive, hurtful behavior. Loss of self-respect and self-confidence may be a secondary effect of the bystander’s reluctance to get involved.

Bystanders have a variety of choices that they are confronted with when they encounter a bullying situation. They can avoid any involvement at all, they can overtly or covertly encourage the behavior, or they can offer direct or indirect support to the victim. They can also work collaboratively with others to help change the prevailing culture of the school or community in order to reduce or eliminate bullying as an accepted pattern amongst children and adolescents.

Since we know that many bullying episodes are accompanied by an associated group of bystanders, the critical questions might be finding ways to draw this group in to taking a positive role to reduce the occurrence of these episodes. Olweus’s research makes a compelling case that “bullying poisons the educational environment and affects the learning of every child.” Children cannot effectively learn if they do not feel safe. We have learned from many of the tragic school shootings that those who are tormented repeatedly through bullying may resort to lethal extremes to remedy their pain and suffering. All children are entitled to a safe and healthy school and community environment and all children need to embrace the message that bullying is not fair, safe or acceptable.

We need to teach our children to take a stand for what is right and to encourage creative, peaceful problem resolution. We need to help those who bully to viscerally understand that their victims are not faceless, meaningless non-entities, deserving of maltreatment and abuse. Victims are real people with real human emotions and the right to live their lives in peace and safety. Bullies need assistance and guidance to increase their functional levels of compassion and empathy. Bystanders need to appreciate that they have enormous power by virtue of their numbers and their capacity to assist the victim of bullying.

Bullying situations often take place away from the watchful eyes of adults and bystanders may be the critical resources in alerting concerned adults before these events take place. They may very well make a significant difference in the prevention or interruption of these negative events. Students need a clear understanding of the difference between tattling and disclosing important information that can serve to shield a potential victim from a bullying assault. Our children can be very effective agents in helping to keep the potential victim as well as the school or community safe and secure.

TheStop Bullying Now! Take A Stand, Lend A Hand HRSA Campaign suggests the following strategies for bystanders:

• Report indications of bullying to any responsible adult.
• Support students who are being bullied-- show them that you care and are concerned about them.
• Stand up to the bully! Let the bully know that his/her behavior is not appreciated and will not be tolerated. The behavior is not cool or funny, but it is really offensive!

Bullying behavior has been around for a very long time and the good news is we are finally taking active steps to identify its component parts and the ways that children and teens can assist adults in combating the destructive effects of this behavior on the intended victims. Like many problem patterns of behavior, it will take well-meaning individuals and a consistent repeated message to alter the negative behavior of youth who bully. Many schools and communities have already seized the moment and are doing great things to change the complexion of their settings. Using evidence-based tested programs they are seeing important changes. The silent majority no longer needs to be silent. We all win when the silent majority speaks out against bullying!

Cyberbullying: Challenges and Solutions

By Nancy Willard for The Center for Safe and Responsible Internet Use

• Middle school students created a website denigrating Raymond. They posted stories, jokes, and cartoons ridiculing his size and questioning his sexuality.
• Tyler reported to the principal that students were bullying another student. When Tyler got home, he had 35 angry messages in his email box. The anonymous cruel messages kept coming -- some from total strangers.

• Sitting around the computer with her friends, Judy asked, “Who can we mess with?” Judy started IM-ing with Sara, asking her many personal questions. The next day, the girls were passing around Sara’s IM at school.

• Brad’s blog is filled with racist profanity. Frequently, he targets black and Latino student leaders, as well as minority teachers, in his angry verbal assaults.

• Greg, an obese high school student, was changing in the locker room after gym class. Matt took a covert picture of him with his cell phone camera. Within seconds, the picture was flying around the cell phones at school.
• Sue was really angry at Kelsey, who she thought stole her boyfriend. Sue convinced Marilyn to post anonymous comments on a discussion board slamming Kelsey. Marilyn was eager to win Sue’s approval and fit into her group of friends, so she did as Sue requested.
• A group of girls at his school had been taunting Alan through instant messaging, teasing him about his small size, daring him to do things he couldn’t do, suggesting the world would be a better place if he committed suicide. One day, he shot himself. His last online message was, “Sometimes the only way to get the respect you deserve is to die.”

Young people have clearly embraced the Internet as a tool for socializing. Unfortunately, there are increasing reports of teens, and sometimes younger children, using the Internet to engage in cyberbullying -- being cruel to others by sending or posting harmful material or engaging in other forms of social cruelty.

Cyberbullying can take different forms, including:

• Flaming -- online “fights” using electronic messages with angry and vulgar language;
• Harassment -- repeatedly sending offensive, rude, and/or insulting messages;
• Denigration -- sending or posting cruel gossip or rumors about a person to damage his or her reputation or friendships;
• Impersonation -- breaking into someone’s account, posing as that person and sending messages to make the person look bad, get that person in trouble or danger, or damage that person’s reputation or friendships;
• Outing and trickery -- sharing someone’s secrets or embarrassing information or images online and/or tricking someone into revealing secrets or embarrassing information, which is then shared online;
• Exclusion -- intentionally excluding someone from an online group, like a buddy list;
• Cyberstalking -- repeatedly sending messages that include threats of harm or are highly intimidating: and
• Engaging in other online activities that make a person afraid for her or her safety.

It is widely known that face-to-face bullying can result in long-term psychological harm to targets. This harm includes low self-esteem, depression, anger, school failure, school avoidance, and, in some cases, school violence or suicide. It is possible that the harm caused by cyberbullying may be even greater. Online communications can be extremely vicious. There is no escape for those who are being cyberbullied -- victimization is ongoing, 24/7. Cyberbullying material can be distributed worldwide and is often irretrievable. Cyberbullies can be anonymous and can solicit the involvement of unknown “friends.”

Cyberbullying may be related to in-school bullying. Sometimes, the student who is victimized at school is also being bullied online. But other times, the person who is victimized at school becomes a cyberbully and retaliates online. Other times, the student who is victimized will share his or her anger or depression online as distressing material.

Frequently, cyberbullying appears to be occurring between members of the “in-crowd” and “wannabes.” Cyberbullying may involve relationships, including angry breakups or fights about relationships. It may also be based on hate or bias -- bullying others because of race, religion, obesity, or sexual orientation. Unfortunately, it also appears that many teens simply think that cyberbullying is entertaining.

Cyberbullying generally is occurring off-campus, although students may be able to engage in cyberbullying through the district Internet system or by using cell phones at school. It is more difficult for schools to respond with formal discipline if the cyberbullying is occurring off-campus due to free-speech protections. Any time there is a report of cyberbullying between students, even if it appears that the activity is occurring off-campus, an individualized search should be conducted of the Internet use activities of the involved students through the district’s Internet system. This may reveal evidence of on-campus activity that can justify a wider range of responses.

Even if the activity is totally off-campus, there is much that can be done to seek to resolve the situation. It is exceptionally important to sort out the overall relationships between the students involved and to stop any related on-campus bullying.

Schools can contact the parents of the students involved in cyberbullying, provide them with evidence of their child’s online activities, and offer to provide assistance in helping them gain better control over their children’s Internet use. In such cases, it is strongly recommended that the parents install monitoring software on their home computers. If parents know that their children causing harm to others and fail to intervene to stop the harm, they can be held financially liable in a civil court proceeding.

There are also actions that the target or target’s parents can take to seek to stop the cyberbullying and remove the material. This includes contacting the website, Internet service provider, and/or cell phone company to file a complaint. In some cases, filing a civil lawsuit may be justified or contacting the police if the actions are in violation of criminal law.

Counselors can assist the target in dealing with these situations by either helping the target disengage from the online community in which he or she is being bullied or finding a way to stop the cyberbullying while remaining in the online community. Online communications provide interesting capabilities to help “bully-proof” a student. The communications are recorded. This can allow the student and counselor review the communications to determine whether actions of the student might be precipitating the cruel behavior. Bullies are reinforced when the target loses his or her “cool.” But online communications are invisible and can be delayed. Targets can learn the importance of not responding when upset and can take the time to craft a strong and assertive response. This provides targets with the opportunity to more effectively stand up to the bully and, in so doing, hopefully get the bullying to stop.

These new technologies are clearly an important part of youth life. There is simply no way to block or prevent their use. Increased adult supervision is clearly essential. But most importantly, these new technologies present a challenge: How can we impart to young people the knowledge, skills, and values to ensure that they make good choices that demonstrate respect for others and are empowered to respond effectively if others are not demonstrating respect for them?

Class-Wide Behavior Management Interventions

By Theodore, PhD Bray, PhD, NCSP and Kehle, PhD, NCSP for National Association Of School Psychologists

Dealing with disruptive behaviors is a challenging task for many educators. These behaviors often lead to chaos in the classroom and negatively affect social functioning. Disruptive classroom behavior has been shown to be associated with declines in educational performance, reduced academic learning time, and diminished performance on standardized tests. Moreover, children who demonstrate consistent patterns of disruptive behavior are at an increased risk for antisocial behavior.

The most common disruptive behaviors in the classroom setting include noncompliance, aggression, inattention, and off-task behavior, such as manipulating objects and doodling. Young children who exhibit disruptive behavior problems are likely to continue exhibiting those behaviors as they age. Although many interventions are effective in reducing disruptive behavior, most are designed for individual students. These individual programs are time-consuming for teachers, often require extra resources, and do not reward students who are behaving appropriately. Given the negative implications of disruptive classroom behavior, it is important to reduce these disruptions and facilitate the process of learning. This handout provides interventions that address a wide variety of problematic classroom behaviors that disturb the learning process for grades K-12.

Group Intervention

Group contingencies are an attractive alternative for educators and are appealing for several reasons. First, the same goals, criteria for success, target behavior(s), and reinforcers are in effect for the entire class. This results in a more efficient method of classroom management, as the teacher is only supervising one contingency program. Second, students who exhibit appropriate behavior receive recognition for doing so. Third, socialization and peer interactions are often enhanced because the class as a whole is working toward a common goal. Group-oriented contingencies are categorized into three types: independent, interdependent, and dependent.

Independent Group Contingency

Independent group contingencies require the same criteria, target behaviors, and reinforcers for the entire class. However, reinforcement is based on an individual student’s performance, independent of their classmates. Therefore, although the contingency is the same for all students in the classroom, reinforcement is delivered individually, based on the performance of each student. For example, a teacher may reinforce each student who refrains from calling out more than three times during math. Those students who demonstrate the inappropriate behavior (calling out) more than three times do not earn a reward while those students who call out fewer than three times receive a reinforcer.

There are several advantages of this contingency. For instance, rather than having multiple behavior programs for different students, only one contingency program is in effect for the entire classroom. This results in a more efficient method of managing disruptive behaviors and distributing reinforcers. Another advantage would be if the classroom teacher is able to modify the behaviors of numerous children without singling out individual students.

It is recommended that the independent group-oriented contingency be used when a plan to target one or a couple of students may result in retaliation by other classmates. This strategy is also suggested if a wide range of individual differences exists in the classroom. Thus, children are able to earn reinforcement based on their own abilities. In addition, if targeting one student may result in threats or social punishment, an independent contingency is suggested.

Cautions related to implementing the independent contingency approach specifically concern reinforcement and method of delivery. In particular, the choice of reinforcer is important. Because the reinforcer is the motivating force to modify behavior, it must be powerful enough to motivate change to meet the goal. An unappealing, weak reinforcer, or a reinforcer that is easily attained otherwise, will not promote success.

In addition, since some students earn reinforcement while others do not, tangible rewards are easier to administer than events or activities. While activity reinforcers have many advantages over tangible rewards (i.e., low or no cost, easy access, less like bribes), some activities are not appropriately withheld from students. Some students with significant disabilities, for example, may have a low probability of meeting the group contingency, yet should not be denied access to some activities owing to their disability. Some activity reinforcers may also require adult supervision or flexibility in scheduling.

To overcome these limitations the teacher may (a) employ a token economy whereby points or tickets are given for meeting the specified criterion and later exchanged for other objects or privileges, (b) randomize reinforcers, or (c) utilize an interdependent group contingency whereby the entire class either earns a reward or does not.

Interdependent Group Contingency

An interdependent group contingency rewards the entire class based on the group meeting a specified criterion. The performance of each student in the classroom contributes to meeting the criterion. Therefore, all students need to work together and modify their behavior in order for the class to earn a reward. There are several different ways of implementing an interdependent group contingency, including (a) computing the average of the class performance,(b) having each student in the class meet the criterion, (c) separating the class into teams, and (d) comparing the performance of the student with the highest or lowest performance with the set criterion.

For example, a common method of employing an interdependent group contingency is to divide the class into teams. The number of inappropriate behaviors for each team must not exceed the specified criterion (i.e., five or fewer inappropriate behaviors) during a specified period (i.e., reading) in order for the entire team to earn a reward. Another variation of the interdependent contingency is that all students must meet the specified criterion (i.e., five or fewer inappropriate behaviors) for the whole class to receive a reinforcer. Thus, if one student was noted to call-out seven times, then the entire class would not receive a reinforcer.

The interdependent contingency is particularly useful when teachers are seeking to improve the overall behavior of the entire classroom. It encourages collaboration and social interactions among students because all students must work together to meet a common goal. Further, it does not consume much teacher time because reinforcement is delivered on an all-or-none basis. Teachers are also able to use group activities since the entire class either earns the reward or does not.

There are concerns, though, with interdependent contingencies: (a) Some students who do comply with the contingency program may become frustrated if the class does not earn the reinforcer owing to the poor performance of classmates. This may result in threats or retaliation against students responsible for costing the group the reinforcer. (b) Some students may intentionally ruin the class’s chance to earn reinforcement, giving those students an inappropriate sense of power and control over their peers. (c) Educators need to carefully select the reinforcer, because if the selected reinforcer is not motivating or is considered by some to be negative, students may not be motivated to change their behavior and may try to sabotage the program. (d) The criteria for reinforcement is critical. If students feel they are unable to meet the criterion, they may revert back to their disruptive and inappropriate behaviors. (e) Students may exhibit inappropriate behaviors that have not been targeted for behavior change.

Solutions to these concerns include randomizing reinforcers as well as using components of the interdependent contingency.

Dependent Group-Oriented Contingency

A dependent group-oriented contingency provides reinforcement to the entire class based on one or a few students meeting a specified criterion. That is, the target student or students who exhibit disruptive behavior must meet a specified criterion (i.e., not calling out more than three times during math lesson) in order for the whole class to earn a reward. For example, the selected student(s) must not call-out more than three times during math. If the target student(s) do not call-out more than three times, reinforcement is delivered to the entire class.

One advantage of this strategy is that this contingency utilizes classmates to assist students in modifying their behavior, which may result in improved socialization and cooperation. Further, reinforcement is also delivered to either the entire class or not at all, requiring minimal teacher time. In addition, students who may be rejected socially have the opportunity to earn positive peer attention. The dependent contingency is recommended when only one or a couple of students’ behavior is of concern.

Limitations of this strategy include the focus on one or a couple of students, which may result in threats and/or social punishment from peers when the criterion is not met. In addition, students may take pleasure in ruining the contingency program rather than working together toward a mutual goal. A solution to targeting one student is to randomly select a student from the class. The teacher puts the name of each student in a jar and randomly chooses one name and determines if that student’s performance meets the criterion for reinforcement. If so, then the entire class is rewarded.

Maximizing Effectiveness

Randomize criteria.

Teachers may randomize criteria for reinforcement, individual students, and reinforcers to maximize success and avoid some of the limitations of group contingencies.This will require each student to modify his or her overall behavior, since each student will not know specifically what or who will be chosen (i.e., criteria, student). For example, a student’s name and criteria can be written on a note card (i.e., class average, the student with the highest or lowest performance) for reinforcement and then the note cards can be combined in a jar. Alternatively, one jar can be used for “Names,” one jar used for “Criteria,” and another for “Reward.” Any combination of jars can be used for determining reinforcement.

Randomize reinforcers.

Teachers can poll their students to determine what types of rewards the students would like to earn for complying with the contingency program. Teachers can then incorporate all or some of the student suggestions and randomize them by, for example, placing each idea on a note card and then placing the note card in a jar. By combining and randomizing reinforcers that are enticing to the entire class it is less likely that the contingency program will be deliberately sabotaged because a student did not like the selected reinforcer. The rationale is that students are working toward an unknown yet desirable reinforcer.

Employing randomization.

Implementation of the group contingencies with randomization may be used in the following manner: students should be informed of behaviors that will be modified, the criteria for reinforcement (i.e., overriding criterion is five or fewer checks), and the reinforcers that they may earn. Reinforcers should include student suggestions. The new classroom rules, stated in a clear and positive manner, should be posted in order to serve as a reminder. The teacher should have a sheet of paper with each student’s name written on it. At any point during the specified time period (i.e., math) that students fail to comply with the classroom rules, the teacher will place a check next to that student’s name. At the end of the specified time interval (i.e., math), the teacher will randomly select one note card from one of the jars. For example, if each component of the interdependent group contingency (i.e., class average, performance of the entire class) and names were combined in a “Criteria” jar and a student’s name were selected, the performance of that particular student will determine whether the class will receive reinforcement. In other words, if the student met the overriding criterion (i.e., five or fewer checks), the class will be eligible to earn a reinforcer. The teacher will then randomly select a reinforcer from the “Reward” jar. If the criterion were not met, then the teacher should state that the student did not earn the opportunity to obtain a reinforcer.

Modifications

Group contingencies are fairly easy to employ, are time and cost efficient for teachers, and are effective in improving classroom behavior. However, what if a student continues to exhibit problem behavior despite the established classroom rules, limits, and behavioral expectations? If the behavior management strategy has been implemented for a considerable amount of time (i.e., approximately two weeks) and the behavior affects the academic and/or social functioning of the student or others, the teacher may wish to alter the treatment plan. This could be accomplished by adding new intervention components to the already established group contingency. For example, the classroom teacher may consider communicating with the student’s parents regarding the behavior of concern and collaborate on home/school strategies to improve it. Alternatively, an individual treatment plan (versus the group contingency) addressing the particular behavioral concerns may also be developed by the teacher or with the help of the school psychologist.

A particularly attractive aspect of group contingencies is that they may be implemented for the entire class regardless of whether some students also have individualized behavior plans. If the goal is to modify overall classroom behavior, then children with individualized programs may also engage in the group contingency.

Resources

Axelrod, S. (1998). How to use group contingencies: How to manage series (2nd ed.).

Austin, TX: Pro Ed. ISBN: 0890797609.

Axelrod, S., & Hall, R. V. (1999). Behavior modification: Basic principles (2nd ed.).

Austin, TX: ProEd. ISBN: 0890798044.

Daniels, V. (n.d.) How to manage disruptive behavior in inclusive classrooms. Available from:www.teachervision.com/lesson-plans/lesson-2943.html (Family Education Network).

Jenson, W. R., Rhode, G., & Reavis, H. K. (1994). The tough kid tool box. Longmont,

CO: Sopris West. ISBN: 1570350000.

Kazdin, A. E. (2001). Behavior modification in applied settings (6th ed.). Belmont, CA:

Wadsworth. ISBN: 0534348998.

Rhode, G., Jenson, W. R., & Reavis, H. K. (1996). The tough kid book: Practical classroom management strategies (6th ed.). Longmont, CO: Sopris West. ISBN: 0944584543.

What You Need to Know About Special Education

Editor’s Note

This article was originally published by the National Association of School Psychologists in Helping Children at Home and School II: Handouts for Families and Educators (2004).