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Building Character In Students

By Leah Davies

Most educators agree that assisting students in building moral character is a worthwhile goal. Some of the virtues stressed in schools today include:

compassion, courtesy, cooperation, responsibility,
fairness, tolerance, self-control, courage, knowledge,
citizenship, perseverance, helpfulness, honesty,
and respectfulness toward self, others, authority,
property and the environment

How can educators instill these character traits in students?

1. In your role as an educator, think about individuals who have influenced your life. Make a list of the values they possessed that inspired you. Write down any additional beliefs. Decide which core virtues guide your actions.

2. Meet with school staff. As a group, develop a list of virtues that everyone can support. Elicit their commitment to model these character traits and to reinforce them in students. You may want to display the list and/or accentuate one value each week or month.

3. Strive to create an impartial, accepting school community that cares for all children regardless of differences.

4. Model the ethical beliefs you want to cultivate in your students and identify your commendable actions. For example,

“When I do what I say I will do, I am being dependable.”
“I am being fair when I treat each of you the same.”
“When the principal asked me why I was late yesterday, I told the truth even though it was hard to admit that I had overslept.”

5. Read, discuss and act out stories that teach commendable character traits. Have the children draw pictures, make up games, songs and/or their own stories about characters who made ethical choices. As a class project, design and produce a mural which depicts character-building virtues.

6. Challenge students to demonstrate noteworthy character traits. Reinforce the positive actions by noticing and commenting. For example, “John, when you welcomed the new student and offered to show him around, you were being friendly and helpful.” Also, encourage students to notice virtuous behavior in each other. They can give verbal feedback or write down what happened and place it in a “Good Character Box” to be read later. Have a bulletin board celebrating character traits displayed by students.

7. Provide opportunities for dramatizing situations that help students understand the perspectives of others and develop empathy. For example: A boy dropped his lunch tray, or a girl missed catching the ball. Put the students in the situation. Then help them identify the child’s feeling and guide them toward responding with kindness.

8. Study autobiographies of outstanding persons such as Mother Teresa, Gandhi, Helen Keller, Louis Pasteur, Jackie Robinson, Benjamin Franklin, Johnny Appleseed, Harriet Tubman, Thomas Edison, Abraham Lincoln, Alexander Graham Bell, Martin Luther King, Jr., Winston Churchill, Jane Addams, John Glenn, the Wright brothers, or others the children discover in their own communities.

Ask the students what character traits each exhibited and which ones they had in common. Have them list their own strengths, or the virtues they have observed in other students.

9. Ask each student to pretend to be a reporter and interview an older person. Together compose a list of questions to ask. For example:

“What was life like when you were a child?”
“Who was the most important person in your life?”
“What made him/her special to you?”
“Can you tell about a special holiday memory?”
“Where were you during the war?”
“What values do you live by?”
“When you think about your life, what makes you the most proud?”
“Is there anything you would have done differently?”

Have each student draw a picture and/or write a report about the person interviewed. Compile the papers in a book.

10. Provide age-appropriate opportunities for children to develop decision making skills regarding moral judgments. For example:

“You promised to help your grandma clean her apartment, but at the last minute you are invited to go to the movies with a friend.”

What would you do? (Dependable)

“You broke your aunt`s favorite vase. But since it was on a high shelf maybe she won1t notice that it is gone.”

What would you do? (Truthfulness)

“You have an important part in a group project with three other students. You told them it would be done on time, but the night before it was due, your dad wanted you to go to a baseball game.”

What would you do? (Trustworthy)

11. Involve children in making classroom rules. Make expectations clear and follow through with meaningful consequences.

12. When disputes arise, help students arrive at an agreeable solution. Follow these steps:

• Stop, cool down
• Ask, “What is the problem?”
• Each one answers and listens
• Brainstorm possible solutions
• Agree on a plan
• Try it
• If it does not work, agree to try something else

13. Demonstrate communication skills. Be consistent and send clear messages. Listen respectfully to student`s ideas and answer their questions.

14. Set high but reasonable academic standards for yourself and your students. Be respectful and honest in your relationships and academic work. Be prepared to inspire learning through your knowledge and enthusiasm.

15. Consider children’s ages and abilities when you make assignments. Teach tenacity by requiring the completion of work and honesty by holding the students accountable for doing their own lessons.

16. Show your humility by acknowledging your mistakes. Yet demonstrate perseverance.

17. Remember what Mother Teresa said, “We can do no great things, only small things with great love.” Share your time, talents and belongings. Encourage your students to volunteer at school and/or in their community. Facilitate altruistic projects like clothing collections, food donations, cleaning up litter, or other beneficial activities.

18. Recruit and involve parent and community leaders as supporters in the character-building efforts through programs, newsletters, or other methods.

19. Partner with parents to monitor children`s exposure to media and materials that can undermine virtuous behavior and promote early sexual involvement, violence, drug use, and other detrimental behaviors.

20. Remind parents that they are their children`s role models. If children are to develop positive character traits, the adults in their lives must live the values they hold dear, as well as emphasize the importance of building caring relationships rather than accumulating things.

Stories of Hope

By Peter White for The Bureau For At-Risk Youth

Americans are of two very different moods right now. On one hand, they are entering the holiday season, with the joys of giving, the family visits, the excitement of children in school, the decorations and traditions, and all the merriment and spiritual meaning that the holidays bring. But they also are in a somber national mood, one which has seen nerves and hearts fritter away. A colleague described it as an "unending national funeral," aptly capturing how so many feel for the victims and families and for everyone in our nation coping with the September 11th attacks. So perhaps at this holiday time, it is important to reflect on some joyous and touching moments, the kind we all may have, but moments that have been overshadowed by the recent tragedy.

We see and hear so much about the bravery of the rescue workers, the untiring efforts of the work crews at Ground Zero, and the millions of folks busy every day raising funds, donating blood and performing the many acts of kindness to try to say to the victims, "We care and we're with you." Yet what of our splendid youth, who seem to have such a great ability to put the needs of others ahead of their own? Long before September 11th, there was good cause to celebrate the great service of our young people. I'm sure every teacher has his or her stories of the joys students bring to others, of the many incredible acts that occur when service to others becomes part of their lives. So, in light of the emotional void caused by September 11, here are a few of my favorite stories about how young people have touched the hearts of those who needed it.

The first involves students visiting Pilgrim State Psychiatric Center, a large mental hospital on Long Island. Ever since the 1970's, students from Northport High School organized the visit during the holiday season. When we began this program, there were nearly 16,000 patients there, with varying degrees of mental illness. Many were geriatric, some were blind, and all were psychiatric patients. Many of the older patients were immigrants who had come here from other lands, who had fled hunger, war, and oppression. They persevered, worked hard, raised families, and in some cases, outlived their family members. It was sad to see so many once flourishing lives now being warehoused, medicated, and rarely visited.

Students decided to make a series of visits that counted. They worked hard gathering thousands of presents, baking brownies, cookies and cakes, and practicing a variety of musical numbers and dance routines. The volunteer office at Pilgrim State arranged for our students -- six buses full -- to visit with 1600 patients, or about 10% of the total population. I can recall so many times when the simple act of a young person sitting with a patient, touching him, helping him open a gift, caused a change in the patient. I recall students helping patients put on their new socks or painting their nails with new nail polish.

But the most touching moment at Pilgrim came several years ago when I dressed in a full Santa Claus suit with a huge beard which hid my face. Actually, at times I liked hiding my face behind the beard because there were so many moments when I became tearful that it made things seem easier. It is never easy to see 250-300 mental patients in one day, the images of each of their faces become imprinted on your mind. For many students this was their first time seeing anyone in that condition, and they saw hundreds -- while trying to bring a little happiness to each. As Santa made his way to each of the patients, ho, ho, hoing his way along, the students were phenomenal. They sat with and helped each patient, performing and touching their hearts in a special way.

Then came the miracle. An obviously severely ill man was sitting on a table, shaking, and apparently unaware that only a few feet from him were dancing girls, refreshments, gifts and music. One student had brought his guitar and was leading us all in some holiday caroling. While he played and we sang, the patient continued to look away and shake, unable to join us as some less severely ill patients were. When the young man finished playing, the patient stood up and walked to him. He put his hands out as if to want to hold the guitar. The student looked at me and wondered what he should do. Nurses and aides were present, so I nodded - signaling to give it to him. The patient sat down on the stool, assumed a guitar playing stance, and began playing. Not only did he play, but he played beautifully, like a trained professional; it was totally unexpected and unexplainable. The doctors were summoned. They stared in disbelief. They said the patient had never responded to anything before and had only shown very serious and constant convulsions. To see a man in this condition singing and playing like a professional seemed nothing short of a miracle to the students and hospital staff.

Watching this, I was truly grateful to have the beard, because the tears were flowing. As his playing took the form of a well-rehearsed, country-western show, he ended with a big finish, with the students and staff clapping along and stomping their feet. When he was done, he politely handed the guitar back to the student, returned to his table, and immediately slipped back into his prior mental state of detachment and severe shaking. All were confused and in wonder about the complexities of the human brain, and how one could be out of society, then seemingly in, then out again, all in a matter of minutes. I for one will always believe that this so-called miracle was caused by the joy and goodness of youth, the human contact, the positive stimulus he received from the good-hearted young people that day.

Since then, there have been several similar stories, where totally out of the blue, unexplained behaviors took place, and patients were, at least for the moment, uplifted. But perhaps the larger good is that over the years thousands of people -- who have lives that society rarely, if ever, recognizes -- were treated with decency and love. And it was young people who brought this forth.

One story, which is particularly apropos for the holidays, is that of Sean. Sean was a member of my Urban Studies class and also of STUDENTS FOR 60,000. He was a big boy, with a great smile…usually. During our annual holiday trip, the last day of school before the December holidays, more than 100 of my students spend a day in New York City and are allowed to bring a guest. Sometimes there are an excess of 200 students on the Long Island Rail Road, all heading for the greatest cultural and educational resource on earth -- New York. Because my students bring guests, we characterize the trip as a leadership experience, one in which my students must be fully familiar with street and subway maps, have a sense of direction, and be able to lead their guests on a walk of Midtown Manhattan, while stopping at a dozen or more sites I select. Then they must return to the LIRR at Penn Station at a certain time.

However, I also offer an option for those who feel the holiday/tourist excursion is not enough -- a visit to a homeless shelter. Before the trip I contacted my friend at NYC's Partnership for the Homeless which operates 160 shelters citywide, each with ten to 20 beds. The Partnership began about 20 years ago when a man froze to death right outside a church and the priest decided he could make better use of the basement by providing a shelter than by running recreation nights and bingo. He sought and obtained permission from the City to set up a dozen cots and began taking homeless men and women in. That initiative evolved into a program which now provides more than 3000 beds a night.

My contact suggested that if I wanted to give my students a good look at the plight of the homeless, that I take them to Blessed Sacrament Church on West 71st St. There we would find a Father O'Connor who would lead us to the church basement where some 15-20 cots were located. Twelve students and I proceeded to the church and were met by Father O'Connor who showed us the dark basement, empty but for the cots. Father explained that this was a women's shelter, and most of the women were what others in society would call "bag ladies."

Since it was not their home but a shelter, Father was encouraged to give the women a different cot each night. He said he felt there was more dignity in letting them use the same cot each night, that some might feel a sense of being at home. Standing in the basement, we couldn't help but notice the darkness. Father explained there was no electricity in the basement. The women came in just before dark, went right to sleep, and then moved on out during the daytime hours. We also noticed that there were no showers. One student asked, "Where do they wash?" Father said, "In train stations or wherever they can." Each cot had a folding chair next to it, some plastic bags full of the women's belongings, and clean, NYC-provided sheets.

One cot caught Sean's eye. It was like the others except it had a dozen or so bright red napkins scattered across the sheet. Sean asked why the napkins were there. Father said, "Perhaps that's the best she can do for Christmas decorations." The students were silent. They were overwhelmed by the conditions which our City's poorest must endure.

When we left, I decided to treat the group to some pizza. It was the holidays and they did give up part of their holiday trip to learn about the plight of others. At a nearby pizza place, while we were busy passing the hot slices around, I noticed Sean with his back to us, gazing out the window toward West 72nd Street and all the passersby. I urged him to turn around and have a slice. He refused and just shrugged his big shoulders. A few minutes later, a few other students, noticing Sean not eating with us, urged him to partake. He refused and kept his back to us.

Finally, I put my hands on his shoulders and gently spun him around. His eyes were filled with tears and he didn't speak. I first thought perhaps something may be wrong at home, or Sean was having some problems with friends. I said, "Sean, what's wrong?" The others and I waited for him to answer. After quite a pause, he said passionately and tearfully, "Those ladies…" I knew Sean was greatly affected by the sight of the cots and environment the homeless women had to endure. He had a great heart, and was trying to come to terms with what he'd just seen. I also knew that I, as a teacher, couldn't let this matter stand without some spot counseling or talk. The other kids were great. They embraced Sean and spent the rest of the day with him. When school resumed in January, the students made a report to their clubmates. They resolved to raise $4000 in order to bring electricity into that church basement and to construct two or three new showers so "those ladies" could have some decency -- and by the end of the year, they did it.

I hope that these stories have caused you to think about the greatness which exists in our schoolhouses throughout the country, that you are able to realize that every school has many fine, loving, caring young men and women who are capable of almost anything. And I firmly believe that we must cultivate this good citizenship within our students, we must provide opportunities for them to come up big, to feel like they have lives which count. And I hope that, in spite of the heartache September 11th has produced, that each of you has a wonderful holiday season.

Be Part Of The Peace

By Dr. Pamela Riley for National S.A.V.E.

Schools and communities all across the country are gearing up for the second annual National Youth Violence Prevention Week celebration. Launched by National SAVE (Students Against Violence Everywhere) and The Guidance Channel, this National Youth Violence Prevention Campaign is designed to demonstrate the positive role young people can have in making their schools and communities safer. Activities are held throughout the school year and culminate in a week-long national education initiative (to be held March 29-April 2 in 2004). Below are ways that you can support this important initiative...

Take Action!

The best way to familiarize yourself with the campaign is to read the Action Kit available on the campaign website www.ViolencePreventionWeek.org. This will offer a full explanation of the mission of the campaign, activity ideas, advice on dealing with the media, suggestions on how all different sectors in your community can support the campaign, and much more. There are even reproducible handouts that show how each sector of your community can support the campaign so you can easily distribute them within your schools.

Spread The Word

The campaign website offers a media kit that includes tips on how to get publicity for the campaign. A sample press release can serve as an easy way to explain the campaign and may be adapted to include information about specific events in your local communities.

Visitors to the campaign website will also find a sample proclamation for legislators to use to officially recognize the campaign. We are encouraging all those participating in the campaign to send a personal letter, along with a sample proclamation to their representatives, to ask for their support for the campaign. You could even include the list of ways government agencies can support the campaign that is listed on the campaign website. To find out who your legislators are, visit the My Government Guide website.

Another way to let other people know about the campaign is to send out campaign e-cards. The campaign website makes it easy and fun to share activity ideas and update friends and colleagues about the campaign through these colorful and informative cards.

Get Connected

In addition to National SAVE and The Guidance Channel (cofounders of the event), there are many other organizations offering a wide array of resources including activity ideas, publicity, and other unique collaborations to support the efforts of the campaign. This growing list of sponsors currently include:

The Association For Conflict Resolution

A professional organization including over 7000 members dedicated to enhancing the practice and public understanding of conflict resolution

American School Counselor Association

A worldwide nonprofit organization that supports school counselors` efforts to help students succeed in school and in life

Join Together

A comprehensive network of free Internet services offering news, action alerts, and resource listings to support community-based efforts to address violence

National Association Of School Safety And Law Enforcement Officers

School safety professionals from across the U.S. dedicated to the development and improvement of policies and practices to create safe schools for all students

National Association Of Social Workers

Over 150,000 social workers working to advance sound social policies

National Association Of Student Councils

Middle level and high school councils from across the country encouraging and influencing a positive school climate

NEA Health Information Network

The nonprofit health affiliate of the NEA providing health information to 2.7 million educational employees and the more than thirty million students they serve

National Youth Court Center

A center run through the American Probation and Parole Association (APPA) that provides information, training, technical assistance, and resource materials for youth court programs

Teaching Tolerance

A clearinghouse of information about programs and activities for K-12 educators that promote respect for differences and appreciation of diversity

United Religions Initiative

A coalition representing over 85 religions, spiritual expressions, and indigenous traditions, working to end religiously-motivated violence and to create a more peaceful world

YouthNOISE

A unique web-based initiative that seeks to inspire, connect, and empower youth to help young people everywhere by volunteering, fundraising and speaking out

Youth Service America

A resource center and alliance of over 300 organizations committed to increasing opportunities for young Americans to serve locally, nationally, and globally.

As sponsors of the campaign, all of these organizations will be promoting the campaign through their websites, newsletters, and other publications! They are also encouraging all of their members to get involved in the campaign. So for example, the American School Counselor Association is a sponsor of the campaign, so that means that you should connect with your school counselors to help them plan for the event. If the school counselors are unaware of the event, you can then refer them to their national organization and the campaign website for more information about getting involved.

Review The Campaign Brochure

This brochure features suggested activities designed each day of the week that were developed by National SAVE`s Youth Advisory Board. There`s also information on the vision, mission, and role of National SAVE, along with a registration form to start new chapters. In addition, you`ll find educational tools, such as games, videos and activity books, that teach violence prevention strategies, as well as celebration items like the official campaign t-shirts, ribbons, banners and bookmarks. You can request the campaign brochure by clicking here or by calling 800-999-6884.

Nurturing Creativity

By Lynn Bunnell, M.S. ED., CTRS, CADC for Wellness Reproductions & Publishing, LLC

As a recreation therapist working with clients with mental health and/or chemical dependency issues, I have the wonderful opportunity to use a variety of modalities, limited only by my imagination and creativity. Often, I ask group members to experience and participate in activities that may not fit their expectations of what therapy "should" be. For many, this can be a fun experience as they explore new ways of self-expression. For others, it can provoke feelings of anxiety and initial resistance to different approaches, such as the use of art. Often, clients may be self-critical, telling me they are not creative to avoid a particular technique or modality. Yet dealing with these reactions is both fun and challenging for me. In this article I will explore what creativity is, examine the common barriers to it, and offer ideas on how it can be encouraged. The ultimate goal of this article is to convince you that all human beings are creative and to illustrate how you can help your clients to explore and nurture their own creativity.

How do we define creativity? Many of us hold a limited view that looks at creativity as occurring when we are performing or producing a tangible product. I like to think of creativity as a much larger concept that incorporates a process. Amy Dacyczyn, author of The Tightwad Gazette, Promoting Thrift As A Viable Alternative Lifestyle (1992), decided she wanted to be a stay-at-home mother, but needed to find ways to save money to make up for the lack of a paycheck. She came up with many ideas in which a person could save money and shares these strategies in her book. She also examines the concept of creativity in her book, stating (p51), "Creativity is nothing more or nothing less than solving a problem in an original way." She adds, "When there is a lack of a recognized outlet, such as writing, art, or music, creativity goes unnoticed." She points out that all of us have this spark and gives examples that we take for granted, such as when we speak and combine words to express our thoughts. Our creativity may also be demonstrated when we adapt a recipe because we`re missing an ingredient or when we come up with a new strategy for addressing a problem with a co-worker. Dacyczyn takes away the mysticism that creativity is a gift for a few.

When discussing the concept of creativity with my colleagues, several of them suggested that there is a spiritual element. I agree and like to think of the word recreation as re-creation. I believe that when we are recreating and doing something we feel passionate about, we are re-creating and discovering different parts or sides of ourselves that we may not be in touch with often. Experiencing these different parts of ourselves helps us feel more connected with ourselves, with others, and with our Higher Power. Another benefit of understanding that we are creative is that it helps us get "unstuck" when we realize that there are multiple solutions to any problem. One of my colleagues, Judy LaCoste, gave a simple yet eloquent definition, "Creativity is expression of self without walls." When we view creativity in this light, it becomes apparent that everyone possesses this gift. Clearly, a lack of understanding of what creativity is is one of the main reasons why many people don`t recognize it in themselves.

Another common barrier to creativity occurs when we`re told our ideas are "wrong," and we feel squelched. Harry Chapin’s song, "Flowers are Red," from his album, Living Room Suite, tells the story of a young boy who was punished by his teacher because he wanted to paint flowers all the colors of the rainbow. His teacher told him, "Flowers are red, young man, and green leaves are green..." Eventually the boy agreed with the teacher in a resigned way, his spirit broken. Later he had another teacher who encouraged him to paint flowers in all the colors of the rainbow. His response to her was, "Flowers are red, and green leaves are green. There`s no need to see flowers any other way than the way they always have been seen." The boy had believed that his ideas were wrong and even when given an opportunity to try it a new way, he was only able to parrot the negative messages he received. The message in this song is a testament to the power words or judgment can have on creativity.

Stress is also a barrier to creativity. When our clients or we are stressed, our creativity may become blocked because we are so focused on a particular problem or crisis. This is especially common amidst depression, when concentration may be poor and it is a struggle to get through each hour or day. In addition, when we feel pressure to perform, we can feel less creative. Other obstacles to creativity clients have identified include:

• low confidence
• not enough time
• criticism
• peer pressure
• negative attitudes
• lack of resources/opportunities
• fear of mistakes or failure
• exhaustion
• negative self-talk (“I can’t”)
• black and white thinking

It is clear there are many ways to discourage creativity, so what can we do to encourage creativity?

Foremost, as professionals we need to believe in the creativity within ourselves. If I flippantly say, "I am not creative," or I don`t do what I`m asking my clients to do, I am sending the wrong message. We need to be role models and demonstrate a willingness to try new things -- even when scared. We can help our clients to believe they are creative by educating clients as to what creativity really is: a process for them to discover their own unique qualities. Exposing them to a variety of activities and situations can be invaluable.

In terms of educating clients on the value and importance of creativity, I incorporate brainstorming into many of the groups I facilitate, often as a warm-up to the topic. I will often toss around a "Koosh" ball and have the group members come up with ideas about a topic without judgment. Topics for brainstorming could include ways to have fun, ways to show care for another person, ways to manage your stress, positive qualities, things you are grateful for, etc.

In a group emphasizing creativity specifically, I pass around a shoebox, (one with a separate lid) and ask them to do something with it (except stomp on it). I go first and put one foot into the lid and the other into the box and I cross-country ski around the room. I have seen over 100 ways to use a shoebox, (some ideas I cannot repeat in this article)! I will then break the group into teams of three to four participants and give them a bag of six props with which to create a game. They name their game and demonstrate it to the others.

I often play the above-mentioned song, “Flowers are Red,” and ask clients to discuss their feelings when hearing the song and how they relate to it. Then, at the end of the session after the group has had an opportunity to explore their creativity, we identify and discuss what discourages and encourages creativity. From these discussions, my clients have identified the following ways to encourage creativity:

• express your true self and develop individuality
• use positive messages (“I can!”)
• find quiet time to reflect
• stay open-minded
• refrain from judging or criticizing others
• take risks and learn through trial and error
• withhold previous assumptions
• express feelings and thoughts through writing or drawing
• browse through a store, library, or craft show to stimulate ideas
• surround oneself with positive and encouraging people who are problem solvers
• brainstorm with self and/or others
• use humor
• maintain a positive attitude

In summary, we need to convey acceptance and encouragement of creativity both through our words and our actions. It is also important to emphasize the value of creativity in problem solving and therefore in our clients` various crises. I feel so rewarded when I hear a client grasp this concept and share it with a new client by saying, "You may not think you are creative, but you will find out here that you are."

Class-Wide Behavior Management Interventions

By Theodore, PhD Bray, PhD, NCSP and Kehle, PhD, NCSP for National Association Of School Psychologists

Dealing with disruptive behaviors is a challenging task for many educators. These behaviors often lead to chaos in the classroom and negatively affect social functioning. Disruptive classroom behavior has been shown to be associated with declines in educational performance, reduced academic learning time, and diminished performance on standardized tests. Moreover, children who demonstrate consistent patterns of disruptive behavior are at an increased risk for antisocial behavior.

The most common disruptive behaviors in the classroom setting include noncompliance, aggression, inattention, and off-task behavior, such as manipulating objects and doodling. Young children who exhibit disruptive behavior problems are likely to continue exhibiting those behaviors as they age. Although many interventions are effective in reducing disruptive behavior, most are designed for individual students. These individual programs are time-consuming for teachers, often require extra resources, and do not reward students who are behaving appropriately. Given the negative implications of disruptive classroom behavior, it is important to reduce these disruptions and facilitate the process of learning. This handout provides interventions that address a wide variety of problematic classroom behaviors that disturb the learning process for grades K-12.

Group Intervention

Group contingencies are an attractive alternative for educators and are appealing for several reasons. First, the same goals, criteria for success, target behavior(s), and reinforcers are in effect for the entire class. This results in a more efficient method of classroom management, as the teacher is only supervising one contingency program. Second, students who exhibit appropriate behavior receive recognition for doing so. Third, socialization and peer interactions are often enhanced because the class as a whole is working toward a common goal. Group-oriented contingencies are categorized into three types: independent, interdependent, and dependent.

Independent Group Contingency

Independent group contingencies require the same criteria, target behaviors, and reinforcers for the entire class. However, reinforcement is based on an individual student’s performance, independent of their classmates. Therefore, although the contingency is the same for all students in the classroom, reinforcement is delivered individually, based on the performance of each student. For example, a teacher may reinforce each student who refrains from calling out more than three times during math. Those students who demonstrate the inappropriate behavior (calling out) more than three times do not earn a reward while those students who call out fewer than three times receive a reinforcer.

There are several advantages of this contingency. For instance, rather than having multiple behavior programs for different students, only one contingency program is in effect for the entire classroom. This results in a more efficient method of managing disruptive behaviors and distributing reinforcers. Another advantage would be if the classroom teacher is able to modify the behaviors of numerous children without singling out individual students.

It is recommended that the independent group-oriented contingency be used when a plan to target one or a couple of students may result in retaliation by other classmates. This strategy is also suggested if a wide range of individual differences exists in the classroom. Thus, children are able to earn reinforcement based on their own abilities. In addition, if targeting one student may result in threats or social punishment, an independent contingency is suggested.

Cautions related to implementing the independent contingency approach specifically concern reinforcement and method of delivery. In particular, the choice of reinforcer is important. Because the reinforcer is the motivating force to modify behavior, it must be powerful enough to motivate change to meet the goal. An unappealing, weak reinforcer, or a reinforcer that is easily attained otherwise, will not promote success.

In addition, since some students earn reinforcement while others do not, tangible rewards are easier to administer than events or activities. While activity reinforcers have many advantages over tangible rewards (i.e., low or no cost, easy access, less like bribes), some activities are not appropriately withheld from students. Some students with significant disabilities, for example, may have a low probability of meeting the group contingency, yet should not be denied access to some activities owing to their disability. Some activity reinforcers may also require adult supervision or flexibility in scheduling.

To overcome these limitations the teacher may (a) employ a token economy whereby points or tickets are given for meeting the specified criterion and later exchanged for other objects or privileges, (b) randomize reinforcers, or (c) utilize an interdependent group contingency whereby the entire class either earns a reward or does not.

Interdependent Group Contingency

An interdependent group contingency rewards the entire class based on the group meeting a specified criterion. The performance of each student in the classroom contributes to meeting the criterion. Therefore, all students need to work together and modify their behavior in order for the class to earn a reward. There are several different ways of implementing an interdependent group contingency, including (a) computing the average of the class performance,(b) having each student in the class meet the criterion, (c) separating the class into teams, and (d) comparing the performance of the student with the highest or lowest performance with the set criterion.

For example, a common method of employing an interdependent group contingency is to divide the class into teams. The number of inappropriate behaviors for each team must not exceed the specified criterion (i.e., five or fewer inappropriate behaviors) during a specified period (i.e., reading) in order for the entire team to earn a reward. Another variation of the interdependent contingency is that all students must meet the specified criterion (i.e., five or fewer inappropriate behaviors) for the whole class to receive a reinforcer. Thus, if one student was noted to call-out seven times, then the entire class would not receive a reinforcer.

The interdependent contingency is particularly useful when teachers are seeking to improve the overall behavior of the entire classroom. It encourages collaboration and social interactions among students because all students must work together to meet a common goal. Further, it does not consume much teacher time because reinforcement is delivered on an all-or-none basis. Teachers are also able to use group activities since the entire class either earns the reward or does not.

There are concerns, though, with interdependent contingencies: (a) Some students who do comply with the contingency program may become frustrated if the class does not earn the reinforcer owing to the poor performance of classmates. This may result in threats or retaliation against students responsible for costing the group the reinforcer. (b) Some students may intentionally ruin the class’s chance to earn reinforcement, giving those students an inappropriate sense of power and control over their peers. (c) Educators need to carefully select the reinforcer, because if the selected reinforcer is not motivating or is considered by some to be negative, students may not be motivated to change their behavior and may try to sabotage the program. (d) The criteria for reinforcement is critical. If students feel they are unable to meet the criterion, they may revert back to their disruptive and inappropriate behaviors. (e) Students may exhibit inappropriate behaviors that have not been targeted for behavior change.

Solutions to these concerns include randomizing reinforcers as well as using components of the interdependent contingency.

Dependent Group-Oriented Contingency

A dependent group-oriented contingency provides reinforcement to the entire class based on one or a few students meeting a specified criterion. That is, the target student or students who exhibit disruptive behavior must meet a specified criterion (i.e., not calling out more than three times during math lesson) in order for the whole class to earn a reward. For example, the selected student(s) must not call-out more than three times during math. If the target student(s) do not call-out more than three times, reinforcement is delivered to the entire class.

One advantage of this strategy is that this contingency utilizes classmates to assist students in modifying their behavior, which may result in improved socialization and cooperation. Further, reinforcement is also delivered to either the entire class or not at all, requiring minimal teacher time. In addition, students who may be rejected socially have the opportunity to earn positive peer attention. The dependent contingency is recommended when only one or a couple of students’ behavior is of concern.

Limitations of this strategy include the focus on one or a couple of students, which may result in threats and/or social punishment from peers when the criterion is not met. In addition, students may take pleasure in ruining the contingency program rather than working together toward a mutual goal. A solution to targeting one student is to randomly select a student from the class. The teacher puts the name of each student in a jar and randomly chooses one name and determines if that student’s performance meets the criterion for reinforcement. If so, then the entire class is rewarded.

Maximizing Effectiveness

Randomize criteria.

Teachers may randomize criteria for reinforcement, individual students, and reinforcers to maximize success and avoid some of the limitations of group contingencies.This will require each student to modify his or her overall behavior, since each student will not know specifically what or who will be chosen (i.e., criteria, student). For example, a student’s name and criteria can be written on a note card (i.e., class average, the student with the highest or lowest performance) for reinforcement and then the note cards can be combined in a jar. Alternatively, one jar can be used for “Names,” one jar used for “Criteria,” and another for “Reward.” Any combination of jars can be used for determining reinforcement.

Randomize reinforcers.

Teachers can poll their students to determine what types of rewards the students would like to earn for complying with the contingency program. Teachers can then incorporate all or some of the student suggestions and randomize them by, for example, placing each idea on a note card and then placing the note card in a jar. By combining and randomizing reinforcers that are enticing to the entire class it is less likely that the contingency program will be deliberately sabotaged because a student did not like the selected reinforcer. The rationale is that students are working toward an unknown yet desirable reinforcer.

Employing randomization.

Implementation of the group contingencies with randomization may be used in the following manner: students should be informed of behaviors that will be modified, the criteria for reinforcement (i.e., overriding criterion is five or fewer checks), and the reinforcers that they may earn. Reinforcers should include student suggestions. The new classroom rules, stated in a clear and positive manner, should be posted in order to serve as a reminder. The teacher should have a sheet of paper with each student’s name written on it. At any point during the specified time period (i.e., math) that students fail to comply with the classroom rules, the teacher will place a check next to that student’s name. At the end of the specified time interval (i.e., math), the teacher will randomly select one note card from one of the jars. For example, if each component of the interdependent group contingency (i.e., class average, performance of the entire class) and names were combined in a “Criteria” jar and a student’s name were selected, the performance of that particular student will determine whether the class will receive reinforcement. In other words, if the student met the overriding criterion (i.e., five or fewer checks), the class will be eligible to earn a reinforcer. The teacher will then randomly select a reinforcer from the “Reward” jar. If the criterion were not met, then the teacher should state that the student did not earn the opportunity to obtain a reinforcer.

Modifications

Group contingencies are fairly easy to employ, are time and cost efficient for teachers, and are effective in improving classroom behavior. However, what if a student continues to exhibit problem behavior despite the established classroom rules, limits, and behavioral expectations? If the behavior management strategy has been implemented for a considerable amount of time (i.e., approximately two weeks) and the behavior affects the academic and/or social functioning of the student or others, the teacher may wish to alter the treatment plan. This could be accomplished by adding new intervention components to the already established group contingency. For example, the classroom teacher may consider communicating with the student’s parents regarding the behavior of concern and collaborate on home/school strategies to improve it. Alternatively, an individual treatment plan (versus the group contingency) addressing the particular behavioral concerns may also be developed by the teacher or with the help of the school psychologist.

A particularly attractive aspect of group contingencies is that they may be implemented for the entire class regardless of whether some students also have individualized behavior plans. If the goal is to modify overall classroom behavior, then children with individualized programs may also engage in the group contingency.

Resources

Axelrod, S. (1998). How to use group contingencies: How to manage series (2nd ed.).

Austin, TX: Pro Ed. ISBN: 0890797609.

Axelrod, S., & Hall, R. V. (1999). Behavior modification: Basic principles (2nd ed.).

Austin, TX: ProEd. ISBN: 0890798044.

Daniels, V. (n.d.) How to manage disruptive behavior in inclusive classrooms. Available from:www.teachervision.com/lesson-plans/lesson-2943.html (Family Education Network).

Jenson, W. R., Rhode, G., & Reavis, H. K. (1994). The tough kid tool box. Longmont,

CO: Sopris West. ISBN: 1570350000.

Kazdin, A. E. (2001). Behavior modification in applied settings (6th ed.). Belmont, CA:

Wadsworth. ISBN: 0534348998.

Rhode, G., Jenson, W. R., & Reavis, H. K. (1996). The tough kid book: Practical classroom management strategies (6th ed.). Longmont, CO: Sopris West. ISBN: 0944584543.

What You Need to Know About Special Education

Editor’s Note

This article was originally published by the National Association of School Psychologists in Helping Children at Home and School II: Handouts for Families and Educators (2004).

Conflict Resolution From the Inside Out

By Rebecca Carman, LCSW for GuidanceChannel.com of Sunburst Visual Media

Last night at 2am I awoke to the sound of shouting. In the apartment next to mine a couple was screaming obscenities at each other at the top of their lungs. Skimming the paper over breakfast I came across this news flash: two grown men stab each other multiple times. The cause of their inflamed passions? A bag of chips—and a small one at that!

In the fall of 2005, I was approached about creating a resource about conflict resolution for teenagers, I accepted the project with excitement, but also with trepidation. First of all, as attested to by my last 24 hours, conflict seems to have reached epidemic proportions. Disputes escalate more and more quickly, more virulently, practically out of thin air. Is it just a New York City thing, or is our populace on edge, ready to lose it in barely a millisecond?

I felt humbled by the scale of the problem, how difficult and even frightening it can be for educators and therapists on the front lines. To say nothing of the fact that excellent resources about conflict resolution already abound. Bookstores devote entire sections to the topic, catalogues overflow with offerings, professionals serve up an endless stream of seminars and workshops. What could I contribute that would be new, something truly of use for practitioners interacting with teens on a day to day basis?

I set about interviewing my friends and colleagues, and an answer began to take shape. “Those resources are great,” they said. “But we tried them. They don’t seem to work for our kids.” As I probed further, I began to suspect a gap in the conflict resolution literature. A new resource seemed to be called for--one that specifically targeted the challenges presented by at-risk youth. Something to help teens at the “conflict resolution table” who happened to bring along emotional difficulties; extensive histories of trauma, abandonment and loss; non-existent role modeling; scant hope for the future; poor self-esteem; chronic deprivation and poverty; and/or a mindset glorifying violence and aggression. Workers in schools and clinics and youth programs sought an easy-to-use, hands-on, affordable resource that would be directly relevant to their world—a world of very real, intractable problems and seriously challenging kids.

So these were my marching orders. Conflict Resolution from the Inside Out: Helping Teens Handle Conflict in the Real World should be a resource that would not just impart skills and knowledge—but would help practitioners actually build capacities in teens. I envisioned a resource that would promote the healing and emotional growth needed by teens in order to handle conflict well. At the same time, this resource needed to be fully accessible to non-clinicians (as so often, it is the paraprofessionals and aides and residential workers carrying the Herculean burden of working with our most troubled youth).

I knew from doing my last book for The Bureau for At-Risk Youth (Helping Kids Heal: 75 Activities to Help Children Recover from Trauma and Loss) that as much as New York City has its share of struggling children, it is also blessed with a cadre of extraordinarily talented, committed staff working on their behalf. What did they think were the underlying issues affecting teens’ ability to handle conflict? What activities had they found/devised/heard about/improvised—that had been most effective?

I interviewed staff from every discipline I could think of, including counselors running anger management groups at Rikers, a mediation group in Crown Heights, trauma education trainers who responded after 9/11, supervisors at analytic institutes, teachers in Bronx public schools, nationally-sought-after corporate facilitators and mediators, social workers running theater groups, editors of a magazine written by foster kids, art therapists at a city hospital, and many, many more. Their responses were nothing short of remarkable, and comprise much of the key content in CRIO. These include activities (complete with scenarios and vignettes) to help teens understand how past experiences influence responses to conflict, gain control over emotions and thoughts when entering charged situations, and expand their ability for reflection, perspective and creativity.

Going back to events of the past 24 hours….I still find myself feeling a bit agitated, frustrated, saddened, and helpless—and these weren’t even my conflicts! And most of us can relate to the misery felt after an argument goes awry—the self-reproach, the cold sand feeling in the bones, the sense of just wanting to throw in the darn towel. If we as practitioners can make even the tiniest inroads in helping teens to handle conflict more successfully, we perform a tremendous service that can help them over their entire lives. Not only will their emotional well-being be dramatically improved but their overall functioning—in school, in relationships, in physical health—will benefit as well. These positive but invisible ripple effects—the arguments not had, the aggression not acted upon—are what we depend upon for peace within our own minds, homes, neighborhoods, workplaces, and greater community.

When folks discovered I was working on a resource about conflict resolution, they would say more often than not: “Oh, I need that book!” And I secretly harbored the same thought myself: the more I can learn about this crucial topic, the better, and not just for my professional life, but for me, my own life, my own relationships. I’m not sure if it was the topic, or its timing, but the creation of CRIO has been one of the most personally meaningful and enriching projects I have ever worked on. At its roots, the endeavor of teaching conflict resolution has a spiritual dimension; the people who became this book’s contributors I found to be, on some level, profound. I only hope the pages of CRIO do justice to the striking collective wisdom I encountered along the way.

More About Conflict Resolution From The Inside Out

This innovative reproducible activity book not only teaches practical skills for handling conflicts, it also addresses the many underlying issues that influence how a teen approaches such situations. Role plays featuring contemporary, edgy scenarios inspire candid discussions and help participants to recognize the power they have over the outcome of those conflicts. Also featured are thought-provoking writing exercises, cathartic art projects, and many other engaging activities that will teach teens how to effectively and creatively manage the conflicts they face in the real world.

Click hereto find out how you can order this book today!