Multifaceted Roles For School Personnel In Child Maltreatment

By Tracy Cruise, Ph.D., CSP for The Bureau For At-Risk Youth

Unfortunately, child maltreatment is a common occurrence in our society. Nearly three million reports of child maltreatment are made to child protective service agencies each year, with close to one million of those reports resulting in confirmed cases of abuse or neglect (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [DHHS], 2002). The majority of these children are often harmed by the very people who are assumed to protect them, their parents or caretakers (79%, DHHS, 2002). As sobering as these incidence figures might be, they are believed to be "the tip of the iceberg." Prevalence figures gathered from retrospective research with adults, reports from adult survivors in anonymous research studies stating that they never disclosed their abuse, and cases that are not reported to child protective service agencies all suggest that the incidence of child maltreatment is actually much higher.

There is no single causal factor resulting in any particular child being more likely to experience abuse or neglect. Boys and girls are equally likely to experience maltreatment, as well as children of all ages, racial and ethnic backgrounds, and socioeconomic levels. Thus, school personnel are almost certain to come face to face with victims of child maltreatment in the school setting.

An example is offered to illustrate just how probable it is for a teacher to have multiple victims of maltreatment in his/her classroom. Conservative estimates suggest that one in four girls and one in 8-10 boys are sexually abused by the age of 18. A K-12 district with 500 female and 500 male students might likely have over 100 female and 50 male victims of sexual abuse. In an effort to make these figures even more meaningful, let's assume the victims are distributed evenly across grades, then there are approximately 8 female and 4 male victims of sexual abuse at each grade level. So if you teach eighth-grade math, you may have as many as twelve victims of sexual abuse throughout your sections. Suddenly these statistics may have a face and a name associated with them. You could extend this line of thinking to the other forms of maltreatment and realize that there might actually be more victims of abuse and neglect in your class or school than you would have thought possible. Furthermore, since children often experience more than one type of maltreatment, it is quite possible that several of these identified victims would also be victims of other abuse or neglect.

Unique Opportunity for School Personnel

School is the largest out-of-home setting in which children spend their time. School personnel come to know individual children well and can identify certain subtle changes. School staff members also have the advantage of familiarizing themselves with normative behavior among certain age groups. Teachers and counselors quickly recognize when a child's behavior is not consistent with that of his/her peers.

Similarly, the centrality of school in children's lives fosters familiar, consistent, and trusting relationships between children and their teachers, counselors, and administrators. School may serve as a safe haven from the violence or loneliness of home. Students may directly or indirectly disclose their abuse to educators hoping the hurt will stop. Personal accounts in the book, Dear Teacher, If You Only Knew...(Seryak, 1997) also reinforce the role educators play in abused children's lives. In this book adult survivors recount stories of teachers who made a difference in their lives, and yet others recall the lack of support they received at a time when they needed it most.

All of these factors support the notion that school personnel are "the front line of defense" when it comes to identifying, reporting, treating, and preventing child maltreatment. Educators are presented a unique opportunity to help maltreated children and have a social responsibility to respond effectively.

Identification of child maltreatment is a first and crucial step in helping to stop a particular child's pain. However, there is no single response pattern or "child abuse syndrome" to help educators accurately identify victims. School personnel can draw from legal definitions, common short- and long-term psychological correlates among victims, and noted abuse-specific behaviors to assist them in making their decisions.

Definitions

Although legal definitions for the various types of child maltreatment vary by state, there are broad conceptual similarities noted among the five most prevalent categories (i.e., physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional or psychological abuse, neglect, and witnessing domestic violence). Incidence figures following each description are taken from Child Maltreatment 2000 (DHHS, 2002).

• Physical abuse: an act of commission by a parent/caregiver resulting in physical injury. This includes hitting, kicking, burning, shaking, biting, or poisoning a child. Physical abuse accounts for about 19% of child maltreatment cases.
• Sexual abuse: sexual acts involving a child in which the child is unable to give informed consent. Sexual abuse includes both acts of physical contact (e.g., kissing, fondling, oral genital contact, intercourse) and noncontact (e.g., being forced to watch the perpetrator engage in self-stimulation, the child being forced to masturbate, exposure to pornographic material). Adults, adolescents and even prepubescent children may perpetrate sexual abuse. Sexual abuse by definition does not have to involve a parent or caregiver. Sexual abuse represents about 10% of all maltreatment cases.
• Emotional or psychological abuse: repeated degrading, terrorizing, or rejecting acts by a parent/caregiver and/or the omission of basic emotional responsiveness (e.g., love, care, support). This form of abuse may occur in isolation but is said to accompany all other forms of maltreatment. About 8% of all maltreatment cases are identified as emotional abuse.
• Neglect: failure of a parent/caregiver to provide a minimal standard of care necessary for a child to achieve physical and psychological development. This is the most common form of maltreatment making up 63% of all cases.
• Witnessing domestic violence: is not typically a separate category of maltreatment as defined by child protective services. However, children who witness such violence are said to be "at risk of harm" and may be reported under such a heading. Children who witness domestic violence are also at greater risk for physical and sexual abuse. No clear incidence data is given on this category.

Psychological Correlates

Some cautions should be noted before describing common psychological responses among maltreated children. First, even though the rates of child abuse and neglect are high and maltreatment should be entertained as a hypothesis when evaluating causal factors of behavior, educators should refrain from "jumping to the conclusion" that every bruise or misbehavior is a result of abuse. Secondly, the following discussed symptoms are indicators of possible abuse (Gil, 1991). The psychological and behavioral responses listed are not unique to victims of child maltreatment, but might also be indicative of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Oppositional Defiant Disorder, or Bipolar Mood Disorders. In fact, children who have been maltreated may be misdiagnosed with any one of these previous disorders, giving educators a false sense of understanding for a child's behavior, affect, or school performance. School personnel should use these indicators to prompt them to consider the possibility that a child has been maltreated and remain open to additional confirming or disconfirming information.

Academic

• Sudden change in academic performance
• Failing grades
• Low standardized test scores -- especially in reading, language, and math
• Difficulty concentrating
• Refusal to participate in certain classes or activities (e.g., dressing-out for gym class, refusing to wear glasses)
• Truancy or absenteeism -- may be to avoid feeling stigmatized or in order to feel safe
• Overachieving to avoid negative consequences of a poor performance
• Staying after school or coming early to avoid home
• Impaired vision or hearing for which aids are not provided or replaced when broken
• Consistently poor hygiene and/or inappropriate dress

Social/Emotional

• Loss of interest in pleasurable activities
• Chronic depressed mood
• Excessive or continual anger -- at self, perpetrator, or others not protecting the child
• Flat or restricted affect
• Dissociation -- psychologically removing oneself from one's body which may be evident through glazed eyes, blank stares, or delayed or absent responses
• Fear of people, objects, or situations
• Nervousness or anxiety -- evident by fidgeting, difficulty attending, or compulsive actions

Behavioral

• Impulsiveness
• Verbally or physically aggressive
• Defiant, acting-out
• Socially isolated or withdrawn
• Social skill deficits -- lack of prosocial behaviors, decreased empathy, inability to make friends
• Regressive behaviors -- tantrums, baby talk, thumb-sucking
• Disturbances in eating behaviors -- lack of appetite, gorging, significant weight loss or gain
• Self-mutilation -- cutting or burning oneself
• Suicide gestures

Abuse-specific Consequences

Just as the general indicators listed above are not conclusive signals of maltreatment, the following abuse-specific symptoms should be given greater consideration, while not prematurely assuming that maltreatment is the only explanation. A child who comes to school tired and poorly groomed might be experiencing neglect, but his/her appearance might also be explained by knowing that his/her single parent has recently switched to working third shift and the entire family is struggling in making the transition.

Sexual behavior problems are more uniquely tied to sexual abuse than other indicators discussed. Although not all victims of sexual abuse will exhibit sexual behavior problems, these behaviors have more discriminative value than other more general symptoms.

Physical

• Repeated marks, cuts, bruises, or other injuries
• Consistently tired in class or low energy level
• Hyperarousal or hypervigilance--sensitivity to noise, movement, or adult mood changes

Behavioral

• Sexually-problematic behaviors (e.g., excessive masturbation, promiscuity, age-inappropriate sexual language or knowledge)
• Fire-setting
• Cruelty to animals
• Hoarding or stealing food

Summary

Child maltreatment affects thousands of children each year, and school personnel have been identified as key respondents in this area. Educators work in a unique context for identifying victims of maltreatment and must stay informed of the literature in order to meet this social responsibility. School personnel continually play a crucial role in the protection of children as they make over half of all reports to child protective services each year (DHHS, 2002). In-services and ongoing training regarding incidence and prevalence rates, possible indicators of the various forms of maltreatment, and suitable interventions should remain a priority for staff. Educators must be willing to consider the possibility of maltreatment when concerns about children arise. Children are often counting on teachers and counselors to care enough to stay informed and get involved.

REFERENCES

Department of Health and Human Services, Administration on Children, Youth and Families (2002). Child Maltreatment 2000. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Gil, E. (1991). The Healing Power Of Play: Working With Abused Children. New York: Guilford.

Seryak, J. M. (1997). Dear Teacher, If You Only Knew...Adults Recovering From Child Sexual Abuse Speak To Educators. Bath, OH: The Dear Teacher Project.