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Beyond Conflict Resolution

In the last 20 years there has been an explosion of interest in conflict resolution programs for young people. There are now many regional and national organizations and networks, national conferences, training programs, and several excellent curriculums. In every area of the country, at every level from K-12, young people are exposed to conflict resolution programs. I think this is a tremendous step forward. Every young person needs communication and problem solving skills. Every young person needs alternatives to violence for solving the conflicts that occur between people. Every young person needs the ability and the opportunity to participate in creating a safer community.

Where do we go from here? How do we turn the promise of conflict resolution into more than a way for young people to respond to fights and other forms of conflict? Conflict resolution by itself won`t diminish the teasing, harassment, bullying, and social exclusion that plagues schools and students. Conflict resolution won`t address the root causes of the anger that leads students to fight with each other. Conflict resolution won`t create an inclusive educational community in which every student feels safe, included, and valued.

In fact, if we are not clear about our goals, conflict resolution can become just another tool that adults use to manage and contain students. Used with that intent, conflict resolution programs may be more humane, but are on the same continuum as metal detectors, locks on classroom doors, and police on campuses.

What are your goals?

If you are looking for a student management tool, a way to reduce fights and other conflicts so that students can just get on with education, then basic conflict resolution should suffice. However this approach leaves some big issues of safety unresolved.

First of all, the basic issues leading to conflict may remain. Students may still feel, and be, unsafe on campus. Students may not be any more empowered than before, and may, in fact, be divided between those who are conflict managers and those who are not. Racial, gender, and class divisions may be just as devastating to students as before. Teacher disrespect, abuse, and harassment of students may continue unabated. Basic values of competition, individualism, self-interest, and hierarchy, which produce so much violence, may continue to be reinforced in the classroom, in the halls, and on the athletic field. Opportunities for transforming the campus into a peaceable, cooperative learning community will be lost.

What is possible beyond a basic conflict resolution program?

Rather than simply an add-on--a way to help students respond to fights and disagreements--conflict resolution can become the basis for students and teachers coming together to decide what kind of community they want to be a part of. Issues of safety, inclusion, and fairness can be incorporated into the curriculum, into class meetings, into use of the playground, into all aspects of campus life. Teachers as well as students can participate in and be accountable for their behavior within community set standards. Teachers can develop cooperative classroom practices that break down the competition and individualism of traditional education. Students, with adult support, can be encouraged to take leadership in identifying problems in the school and coming up with solutions. The curriculum can be focused on issues of inclusion, alternatives to violence, and social justice. Then students can become adept at identifying bias, stereotypes, misinformation, exploitation, and violence, and develop skills for intervention and activism.

As adults we need to look at our motives for adopting conflict resolution programs. Do we want to quiet young people down, or do we want to stir up their leadership and participation? Are we prepared to really listen to their ideas about what might be different at school? If our goal is to open up students` hearts and minds so that they can become critical thinking, active citizens, then the following are some of the areas we can begin to develop in our schools.

• Initiation of class meetings
• Cooperative classroom practices
• Incorporation of a social justice curriculum
• Development of all youth as peacemakers
• Development of the leadership potential of every young person
• Elimination of tracking, A.P. classes and other such divisive (and pedagogically suspect) practices
• Involvement of students in developing discipline and restorative justice guidelines
• Assessment of the curriculum for gender, racial, and other forms of bias and distortion
• Holding teachers and administrators accountable for their behavior towards other teachers and towards students as an integral part of the conflict resolution process
• Development of a service learning program integrated into the curriculum for all students
• Teacher/staff training on these issues and practices

I think there is always a tendency for those of us who are adults to want students to behave, to act responsibly and maturely, and just get on with their education. However students today are dealing with much that makes them angry. Many students feel frustrated, confused, and angry about the family violence, social problems, cutbacks in education and in recreation, arts, and cultural programs, and the lack of safe, challenging and well-paying jobs they experience. Conflict resolution programs will help them avoid taking out their anger on those around them. But if we go beyond conflict resolution, we can help them come together with others and develop the leadership skills they need to address the roots of the problems they face. Going beyond conflict resolution benefits the students, benefits the school, and produces the cooperative, thoughtful, and active citizens our society needs.

Useful Resources
(From Boys Will Be Men: Raising Our Sons for Courage, Caring, and Community).

Berman, Sheldon and Phyllis LaFarge, eds. Promising Practices in Teaching Social Responsibility. Albany,NY: State University of New York Press, 1993.

Bigelow, Bill, et al., eds. Rethinking Our Classrooms: Teaching for Equity and Justice. Milwaukee, WI: Rethinking Schools, 1995.

Child Development Project. Ways We Want Our Class to Be: Class Meetings that Build Commitment to Kindness and Learning. Oakland, CA: Developmental Studies Center, 1996.

Creighton, Allan with Paul Kivel. Helping Teens Stop Violence: A Practical Guide for Counselors, Educators, and Parents. Alameda, CA: Hunter House, 1992.

Derman-Sparks, Louise. Anti-Bias Curriculum: Tools for Empowering Young Children. Washington, D.C.: National Association for Education of Young Children, 1989.

Johnson, David W. et al. Circles of Learning: Cooperation in the Classroom. 7208 Cornelia Dr., Edino, MN, 55435: Interaction Book Co., 1993.

Kivel, Paul and Allan Creighton, Making the Peace: A 15 Session Violence Prevention Curriculum for Young People. Alameda, CA: Hunter House, 1997.

Kohn, Alfie. Beyond Discipline: From Compliance to Community. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1996.

Kohn, Alfie. The Schools Our Children Deserve: Moving Beyond Traditional Classrooms and "Tougher Standards". Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1999.

Levin, Diane E., Teaching Young children in Violent Times: Building a Peaceable Classroom. Cambridge, MA: Educators for Social Responsibility, 1994.

Levine, David, et al. Rethinking Schools: An Agenda for Change. New York: New Press, 1995.

McGinnis, Kathleen. Educating for a Just Society. St. Louis, MO: Institute for Peace and Justice, 1993. Lowe

Stein, Nan D. and Dominic Cappello. Gender Violence/Gender Justice: An interdisciplinary Teaching Guide for Teachers. Wellesley, MA: Wellesley Centers for Research on Women, 1999.

Perry, Theresa and James W. Fraser. Freedom`s Plow: Teaching in the Multicultural Classroom. New York: Routledge, 1993.

Sapon-Shevin, Mara. Because We Can Change the World: A Practical Guide to Building Cooperative Inclusive Classroom Communities. New York: Allyn & Bacon, 1999.

Schniedewind, Nancy, and Ellen Davidson, Open Minds to Equality: A Sourcebook of Learning Activities to Promote Race, Sex, Class and Age Equity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1983, 1998.

Sjostrom, Lisa and Nan Stein. Bullyproof: A Teacher`s Guide on Teasing and Bullying for Use with Fourth and Fifth Grade Students. Wellesley, MA: Wellesley Centers for Research on Women, 1996.

Youth Gangs in Schools: Risk Factors and Solutions

By James Howell

Youth gangs have been prevalent in schools in large cities since the 1970's. However, they have become even more prevalent in schools in the recent past. In the student survey component of the 1995 National Crime Victimization Survey, more than one third (37%) of the students reported gangs at their schools and the percentage of students reporting the presence of gangs at their schools nearly doubled between 1989 and 1995, and then decreased in 1999, according to a more conservative measure.

About two thirds of the surveyed students reported that gangs at school were involved in one or more of three types of illegal activity, violence, drug sales, or gun carrying. However, just 8% of the students said gangs were involved in all three types of activity. About one in five students (21%) said gangs were involved in two of the three illegal activities, and 40% of the students said gangs were involved in only one of these three types of activity. Thus, only a small fraction of the surveyed students said gangs were highly active in all three types of serious crimes. Thus it is very important for school officials, working in collaboration with law enforcement and others in the community, to assess the extent of gang involvement in criminal activity, so that resources can be targeted on the most criminally active and disruptive gangs.

Gangs contribute significantly to student victimization at school, including having things taken from them by force, having something stolen from them, and being physically attacked. The presence of gangs more than doubles the likelihood of violent victimization at school. Yet it is not clear that gangs are a direct cause of criminal victimization at school. Both gangs and criminal victimization in schools are products of such other factors as disorder in schools, and a host of other risk factors in the school, family, community, peer group, and individual domains. Indeed, gangs may be a type of self-protection employed by students in response to threatening school and community environments.

Unlike overall juvenile violence, which tends to peak immediately after the end of the school day, violent gang crimes begin to escalate sharply early in the school day, peak early in the afternoon, and again in early evening. Thus, gang intervention measures need to be in place in schools and in the surrounding community throughout the school day and in the evenings to effectively prevent and reduce gang violence. School security measures do not appear to be a solution, in and of themselves, to school-related gang problems. Other interventions need to be implemented along with school security measures to combat gangs in schools.

Factors from every domain of children's experiences--the neighborhood, family, school, peer, and individual--predict joining a gang in adolescence. Studies show that youth who join gangs grow up in neighborhoods where gangs are present, where many youth are in trouble, and where they feel unsafe. They are very likely to associate with other highly aggressive youth, and begin dating and engage in sexual activity at very early ages. They tend to grow up in homes with parental or family conflict, not living with both parents, and with parents who have pro-violent attitudes and poor family management practices. Some research suggests that relationships between parents are more important than the structure of the family for youths who are bonded to delinquent gangs. The brothers and sisters of future gang members often are in trouble and they also may be gang members, along with other friends. The gang serves as a sanctuary for troubled youth from troubled families, a peer group that provides street socialization.

In general, young people who are on a path of worsening antisocial behavior are most likely to join gangs. The most bonded gang members have low self-control: that is, impulsiveness, risk-seeking, and physical problem-solving tendencies. Future gang members tend to become involved in delinquency--including violence--and alcohol or marijuana use at an early age. During childhood and early adolescence, friendships with aggressive peers, conduct problems, and involvement in delinquency are stepping stones to gang membership. Future gang members are likely to have other gang members in their school classrooms, they perform poorly in elementary school, and they have a low degree of commitment to school. They often are identified as learning disabled. They show higher levels of normlessness in the family, peer group, and school contexts, and they spend lots of unsupervised time with friends. Many youth gang members have none of these characteristics. These are good kids, from good families, and they are good students; however, these youths do not remain in gangs long. Adolescents' allegiances to friends, gangs, and other peer groups tend to be brief.

We should not wait until adolescence to begin gang prevention efforts. Preventive interventions in problem neighborhoods and troubled families could have a significant impact on gang membership. Early academic success is also very important. For communities to be successful, a continuum of youth gang prevention programs needs to be established that address each of the major risk factors for gang membership, and increase protection against risk factors.

Communities need to develop a comprehensive strategy to address gang problems, one that integrates prevention, intervention, and suppression approaches. Because communities have different risk and protection profiles, all jurisdictions experiencing a gang problem need to assess carefully their gang problem, involving all sectors of the community, including youngsters. Under federal support from the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, the National Youth Gang Center has developed a protocol communities can use to guide the assessment of their gang problem. Communities will then be in a position to select, from a growing menu of promising and effective programs, those they wish to implement within their comprehensive strategy. The school-based Gang Resistance and Education and Training Program, developed by the federal Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms, is one of several effective programs for preventing adolescent gang involvement. It has been incorporated in school curriculums in all 50 States and several other countries

Hazing Prevention Strategies

By Richard Sigal for GuidanceChannel.com

Once believed the province of college fraternity men, hazing now has reared its ugly head in other venues: high schools and middle schools. That's not to say it never before existed in public schools, but increased publicity about hazing at all levels has brought it to the surface. How much hazing is going on? Hazing experts have gut feelings, but in truth, it's impossible to accurately compile data on a secret, underground activity.

Hazing ranges from innocuous stuff like being forced to wear silly clothes, through serious physical and sexual assault, to death. Since 1970, one college student has died every year from hazing. For the purpose of this article I will offer the following definition of hazing:

Hazing is an act that as an explicit or implicit condition for initiation to, admission into, affiliation with, or continued membership in a group or organization, could be seen by a reasonable person as endangering the physical health of an individual or causing mental distress to an individual through, for example, humiliating, intimidating, or demeaning treatment; destroying or removing personal or private property; involving the consumption of alcohol, other drugs, or other substances; or violating any of the policies of the particular educational institution.
(Adapted from the Cornell University Task Force on Hazing.)

At Glenbrook North High School in Northbrook, Illinois, a "powderpuff" football game turned violent. Senior girls and a few boys were videotaped abusing junior girls by kicking and beating them, and showering the victims with offensive filth including feces and fish guts. More recently, while at a Pennsylvania football camp, some Mepham High School (in the Bellmore-Merrick school district on Long Island) varsity football players sodomized younger players with a broomstick, pine cones and golf balls. In light of these and other horrific hazing incidents, school districts across the country are scrambling to address the hazing issue in an attempt to prevent and/or eliminate this harmful behavior.

Preventing hazing requires an understanding of its structure and its roots. There are both psychological and sociological dynamics involved. Underlying hazing activities are the psychological needs of the hazers and of their victims. Those who haze have themselves been hazed. They need to dominate, control and wield power over submissive, usually younger, powerless victims. They need to repay what they received. For the victims, there are needs to prove oneself, be accepted by, and identify with, the members of the group into which they desire to gain admission.

Several sociological issues lay the foundation for hazing: institutional power structure, history, tradition, education, community values, machismo and peer pressure -- to name a few.

The prevention of hazing begins at the top of the school district hierarchy. It is the duty of the controlling authority, usually the Board of Education, to develop a clear and comprehensive, zero-tolerance policy that bans any and all hazing activities. In no uncertain terms they must let those below understand that there will be no hazing in this district or the consequences will be severe. Down through the chain of command, the same message must be administered. Particularly, athletic directors and coaches must have a clear understanding of what hazing entails, its definition and its potential consequences for students and for the district. When coaches look the other way and/or accept or facilitate hazing, it is sure to continue.

Hazing exists because of a tradition of hazing in the district or at least in the particular team or organization. The practice continues year after year because those who have been hazed want to pass along what was done to them. There is a tendency for hazing to escalate. Some students want not only to do, but outdo what they experienced. Those in control have to break that cycle. Coaches must explain the history of the tradition to his/her players, and then clearly state that it is finished

.

Districts must create and implement anti-hazing programs for students, coaches, administrators and organization advisors -- and don’t forget the parents. Community support is crucial. In districts where hazing incidents have occurred, some parents have circled the wagons, called their lawyers, stonewalled investigators, and in some places even threatened the victims' parents when they spoke out.

School districts should assign administrators to investigate hazing allegations, and publicize phone numbers students can utilize to reach these people to report incidents of hazing anonymously without fear of repercussions.

Commonly ingrained in hazing activities are macho themes. Initiates are often asked to prove themselves in masculine ways. Peer pressure forces them to accept abuse, prove they are "men" (girls, too), and then to shut up about it. Whistle-blower victims are often condemned by fellow students, and in some cases, end up in therapy finishing their high school careers elsewhere. Strategies should be put in place to support and protect students who have the strength to overcome the peer pressure and report hazing.

To thwart hazing in organizations where students hold varying degrees of seniority and power, instead of making rookies responsible for drudge work while older members watch or berate them, all tasks should be allocated equally, regardless of seniority. Coaches or advisors also should establish mentoring programs. It is doubtful that younger members will respect or want to bond with someone who demeans them, more than with an older member or player who takes them under their wing, cares for them, and teaches them the ropes.

Therefore, to establish anti-hazing prevention programs, school districts need to:

• create a firm policy at the Board of Education level
• examine the district's history of hazing traditions
• establish and regularly administer anti-hazing educational programs
• assign a teacher or administrator to investigate hazing allegations, or signs of hazing
• publish a phone number to contact this person anonymously
• create support strategies for students who report hazing
• develop mentoring programs in clubs and teams, and allocate all tasks equally

Hazing is a serious concern. Students are suffering from physical and emotional abuse; school districts are finding themselves in court; coaches and administrators are losing their jobs. And for what?

Be Part Of The Peace

By Dr. Pamela Riley for National S.A.V.E.

Schools and communities all across the country are gearing up for the second annual National Youth Violence Prevention Week celebration. Launched by National SAVE (Students Against Violence Everywhere) and The Guidance Channel, this National Youth Violence Prevention Campaign is designed to demonstrate the positive role young people can have in making their schools and communities safer. Activities are held throughout the school year and culminate in a week-long national education initiative (to be held March 29-April 2 in 2004). Below are ways that you can support this important initiative...

Take Action!

The best way to familiarize yourself with the campaign is to read the Action Kit available on the campaign website www.ViolencePreventionWeek.org. This will offer a full explanation of the mission of the campaign, activity ideas, advice on dealing with the media, suggestions on how all different sectors in your community can support the campaign, and much more. There are even reproducible handouts that show how each sector of your community can support the campaign so you can easily distribute them within your schools.

Spread The Word

The campaign website offers a media kit that includes tips on how to get publicity for the campaign. A sample press release can serve as an easy way to explain the campaign and may be adapted to include information about specific events in your local communities.

Visitors to the campaign website will also find a sample proclamation for legislators to use to officially recognize the campaign. We are encouraging all those participating in the campaign to send a personal letter, along with a sample proclamation to their representatives, to ask for their support for the campaign. You could even include the list of ways government agencies can support the campaign that is listed on the campaign website. To find out who your legislators are, visit the My Government Guide website.

Another way to let other people know about the campaign is to send out campaign e-cards. The campaign website makes it easy and fun to share activity ideas and update friends and colleagues about the campaign through these colorful and informative cards.

Get Connected

In addition to National SAVE and The Guidance Channel (cofounders of the event), there are many other organizations offering a wide array of resources including activity ideas, publicity, and other unique collaborations to support the efforts of the campaign. This growing list of sponsors currently include:

The Association For Conflict Resolution

A professional organization including over 7000 members dedicated to enhancing the practice and public understanding of conflict resolution

American School Counselor Association

A worldwide nonprofit organization that supports school counselors` efforts to help students succeed in school and in life

Join Together

A comprehensive network of free Internet services offering news, action alerts, and resource listings to support community-based efforts to address violence

National Association Of School Safety And Law Enforcement Officers

School safety professionals from across the U.S. dedicated to the development and improvement of policies and practices to create safe schools for all students

National Association Of Social Workers

Over 150,000 social workers working to advance sound social policies

National Association Of Student Councils

Middle level and high school councils from across the country encouraging and influencing a positive school climate

NEA Health Information Network

The nonprofit health affiliate of the NEA providing health information to 2.7 million educational employees and the more than thirty million students they serve

National Youth Court Center

A center run through the American Probation and Parole Association (APPA) that provides information, training, technical assistance, and resource materials for youth court programs

Teaching Tolerance

A clearinghouse of information about programs and activities for K-12 educators that promote respect for differences and appreciation of diversity

United Religions Initiative

A coalition representing over 85 religions, spiritual expressions, and indigenous traditions, working to end religiously-motivated violence and to create a more peaceful world

YouthNOISE

A unique web-based initiative that seeks to inspire, connect, and empower youth to help young people everywhere by volunteering, fundraising and speaking out

Youth Service America

A resource center and alliance of over 300 organizations committed to increasing opportunities for young Americans to serve locally, nationally, and globally.

As sponsors of the campaign, all of these organizations will be promoting the campaign through their websites, newsletters, and other publications! They are also encouraging all of their members to get involved in the campaign. So for example, the American School Counselor Association is a sponsor of the campaign, so that means that you should connect with your school counselors to help them plan for the event. If the school counselors are unaware of the event, you can then refer them to their national organization and the campaign website for more information about getting involved.

Review The Campaign Brochure

This brochure features suggested activities designed each day of the week that were developed by National SAVE`s Youth Advisory Board. There`s also information on the vision, mission, and role of National SAVE, along with a registration form to start new chapters. In addition, you`ll find educational tools, such as games, videos and activity books, that teach violence prevention strategies, as well as celebration items like the official campaign t-shirts, ribbons, banners and bookmarks. You can request the campaign brochure by clicking here or by calling 800-999-6884.

Bullying Behavior: Mobilizing the Silent Majority

By Dr. Ted Feinberg for National Association Of School Psychologists

Over the past few years school districts, communities, law enforcement agencies and concerned groups and associations have made a concerted effort to raise the level of public awareness about the problem of bullying in our school age population. National campaigns, public service announcements, and a proliferation of programs and products have been marketed as ways to effectively reduce bullying from the landscape inhabited by our children and teens.

We have examined with a fair degree of intensity the constellation of behaviors that create a bully, as well as those patterns that seem to contribute to or result in a youngster who is targeted to be victimized by a bully. We are able to differentiate the passive victim from the provocative victim and some of the gender differences in the ways in which bullying behaviors are manifested.

The time has come for us to focus on a component that is frequently a part of many bullying situations, namely the bystanders. This group of individuals is often on-site when the bullying takes place and can, by virtue of their presence, add increased levels of direct or indirect encouragement to the bully.

Olweus( 2001 ) outlines the Bullying Circle where he diagrams the different roles that students can assume in an acute bullying situation. In addition to the bully, there can be the “follower/henchmen who take an active part in the situation, but do not start the bullying." We also have the supporter bullies who support the bully, but do not take an active part in the bullying behavior. In addition, there are the passive supporter bullies who like the bullying, but do not display open support. We also have the disengaged onlooker who may watch the bullying interaction but take the position that the event is none of their business and therefore do not take a stand to help. There can also be the possible defender who dislikes the bullying and thinks that they should help the victim, but falls short of any direct intervention. Finally, we may have the defender of the victim who not only dislikes the bullying, but also actively tries to help or assist the person being bullied or victimized.

Bystanders may comprise about 85% of the students in a school. They tend to remain inactive and silent, and, while aware of the bullying, often do not know how or what to do or they choose to avoid taking a stand in support of the victim. We find that bystanders often claim that they are not sure what actions to take when they observe a bullying event. Many will confess that they are afraid of retaliation or being ostracized by their social group of friends. Some are worried that they will make the situation worse by interceding. Many bystanders are quite critical and concerned that appropriate adults do not or will not step in to interrupt the bullying behavior. Bystanders may run the risk of becoming desensitized to repeated acts of bullying. Their silence may be viewed by the bully as tacit approval or support for his/her actions. Many bystanders may become despondent, guilty or depressed as they review their lack of response to what they know to be offensive, hurtful behavior. Loss of self-respect and self-confidence may be a secondary effect of the bystander’s reluctance to get involved.

Bystanders have a variety of choices that they are confronted with when they encounter a bullying situation. They can avoid any involvement at all, they can overtly or covertly encourage the behavior, or they can offer direct or indirect support to the victim. They can also work collaboratively with others to help change the prevailing culture of the school or community in order to reduce or eliminate bullying as an accepted pattern amongst children and adolescents.

Since we know that many bullying episodes are accompanied by an associated group of bystanders, the critical questions might be finding ways to draw this group in to taking a positive role to reduce the occurrence of these episodes. Olweus’s research makes a compelling case that “bullying poisons the educational environment and affects the learning of every child.” Children cannot effectively learn if they do not feel safe. We have learned from many of the tragic school shootings that those who are tormented repeatedly through bullying may resort to lethal extremes to remedy their pain and suffering. All children are entitled to a safe and healthy school and community environment and all children need to embrace the message that bullying is not fair, safe or acceptable.

We need to teach our children to take a stand for what is right and to encourage creative, peaceful problem resolution. We need to help those who bully to viscerally understand that their victims are not faceless, meaningless non-entities, deserving of maltreatment and abuse. Victims are real people with real human emotions and the right to live their lives in peace and safety. Bullies need assistance and guidance to increase their functional levels of compassion and empathy. Bystanders need to appreciate that they have enormous power by virtue of their numbers and their capacity to assist the victim of bullying.

Bullying situations often take place away from the watchful eyes of adults and bystanders may be the critical resources in alerting concerned adults before these events take place. They may very well make a significant difference in the prevention or interruption of these negative events. Students need a clear understanding of the difference between tattling and disclosing important information that can serve to shield a potential victim from a bullying assault. Our children can be very effective agents in helping to keep the potential victim as well as the school or community safe and secure.

TheStop Bullying Now! Take A Stand, Lend A Hand HRSA Campaign suggests the following strategies for bystanders:

• Report indications of bullying to any responsible adult.
• Support students who are being bullied-- show them that you care and are concerned about them.
• Stand up to the bully! Let the bully know that his/her behavior is not appreciated and will not be tolerated. The behavior is not cool or funny, but it is really offensive!

Bullying behavior has been around for a very long time and the good news is we are finally taking active steps to identify its component parts and the ways that children and teens can assist adults in combating the destructive effects of this behavior on the intended victims. Like many problem patterns of behavior, it will take well-meaning individuals and a consistent repeated message to alter the negative behavior of youth who bully. Many schools and communities have already seized the moment and are doing great things to change the complexion of their settings. Using evidence-based tested programs they are seeing important changes. The silent majority no longer needs to be silent. We all win when the silent majority speaks out against bullying!

Class-Wide Behavior Management Interventions

By Theodore, PhD Bray, PhD, NCSP and Kehle, PhD, NCSP for National Association Of School Psychologists

Dealing with disruptive behaviors is a challenging task for many educators. These behaviors often lead to chaos in the classroom and negatively affect social functioning. Disruptive classroom behavior has been shown to be associated with declines in educational performance, reduced academic learning time, and diminished performance on standardized tests. Moreover, children who demonstrate consistent patterns of disruptive behavior are at an increased risk for antisocial behavior.

The most common disruptive behaviors in the classroom setting include noncompliance, aggression, inattention, and off-task behavior, such as manipulating objects and doodling. Young children who exhibit disruptive behavior problems are likely to continue exhibiting those behaviors as they age. Although many interventions are effective in reducing disruptive behavior, most are designed for individual students. These individual programs are time-consuming for teachers, often require extra resources, and do not reward students who are behaving appropriately. Given the negative implications of disruptive classroom behavior, it is important to reduce these disruptions and facilitate the process of learning. This handout provides interventions that address a wide variety of problematic classroom behaviors that disturb the learning process for grades K-12.

Group Intervention

Group contingencies are an attractive alternative for educators and are appealing for several reasons. First, the same goals, criteria for success, target behavior(s), and reinforcers are in effect for the entire class. This results in a more efficient method of classroom management, as the teacher is only supervising one contingency program. Second, students who exhibit appropriate behavior receive recognition for doing so. Third, socialization and peer interactions are often enhanced because the class as a whole is working toward a common goal. Group-oriented contingencies are categorized into three types: independent, interdependent, and dependent.

Independent Group Contingency

Independent group contingencies require the same criteria, target behaviors, and reinforcers for the entire class. However, reinforcement is based on an individual student’s performance, independent of their classmates. Therefore, although the contingency is the same for all students in the classroom, reinforcement is delivered individually, based on the performance of each student. For example, a teacher may reinforce each student who refrains from calling out more than three times during math. Those students who demonstrate the inappropriate behavior (calling out) more than three times do not earn a reward while those students who call out fewer than three times receive a reinforcer.

There are several advantages of this contingency. For instance, rather than having multiple behavior programs for different students, only one contingency program is in effect for the entire classroom. This results in a more efficient method of managing disruptive behaviors and distributing reinforcers. Another advantage would be if the classroom teacher is able to modify the behaviors of numerous children without singling out individual students.

It is recommended that the independent group-oriented contingency be used when a plan to target one or a couple of students may result in retaliation by other classmates. This strategy is also suggested if a wide range of individual differences exists in the classroom. Thus, children are able to earn reinforcement based on their own abilities. In addition, if targeting one student may result in threats or social punishment, an independent contingency is suggested.

Cautions related to implementing the independent contingency approach specifically concern reinforcement and method of delivery. In particular, the choice of reinforcer is important. Because the reinforcer is the motivating force to modify behavior, it must be powerful enough to motivate change to meet the goal. An unappealing, weak reinforcer, or a reinforcer that is easily attained otherwise, will not promote success.

In addition, since some students earn reinforcement while others do not, tangible rewards are easier to administer than events or activities. While activity reinforcers have many advantages over tangible rewards (i.e., low or no cost, easy access, less like bribes), some activities are not appropriately withheld from students. Some students with significant disabilities, for example, may have a low probability of meeting the group contingency, yet should not be denied access to some activities owing to their disability. Some activity reinforcers may also require adult supervision or flexibility in scheduling.

To overcome these limitations the teacher may (a) employ a token economy whereby points or tickets are given for meeting the specified criterion and later exchanged for other objects or privileges, (b) randomize reinforcers, or (c) utilize an interdependent group contingency whereby the entire class either earns a reward or does not.

Interdependent Group Contingency

An interdependent group contingency rewards the entire class based on the group meeting a specified criterion. The performance of each student in the classroom contributes to meeting the criterion. Therefore, all students need to work together and modify their behavior in order for the class to earn a reward. There are several different ways of implementing an interdependent group contingency, including (a) computing the average of the class performance,(b) having each student in the class meet the criterion, (c) separating the class into teams, and (d) comparing the performance of the student with the highest or lowest performance with the set criterion.

For example, a common method of employing an interdependent group contingency is to divide the class into teams. The number of inappropriate behaviors for each team must not exceed the specified criterion (i.e., five or fewer inappropriate behaviors) during a specified period (i.e., reading) in order for the entire team to earn a reward. Another variation of the interdependent contingency is that all students must meet the specified criterion (i.e., five or fewer inappropriate behaviors) for the whole class to receive a reinforcer. Thus, if one student was noted to call-out seven times, then the entire class would not receive a reinforcer.

The interdependent contingency is particularly useful when teachers are seeking to improve the overall behavior of the entire classroom. It encourages collaboration and social interactions among students because all students must work together to meet a common goal. Further, it does not consume much teacher time because reinforcement is delivered on an all-or-none basis. Teachers are also able to use group activities since the entire class either earns the reward or does not.

There are concerns, though, with interdependent contingencies: (a) Some students who do comply with the contingency program may become frustrated if the class does not earn the reinforcer owing to the poor performance of classmates. This may result in threats or retaliation against students responsible for costing the group the reinforcer. (b) Some students may intentionally ruin the class’s chance to earn reinforcement, giving those students an inappropriate sense of power and control over their peers. (c) Educators need to carefully select the reinforcer, because if the selected reinforcer is not motivating or is considered by some to be negative, students may not be motivated to change their behavior and may try to sabotage the program. (d) The criteria for reinforcement is critical. If students feel they are unable to meet the criterion, they may revert back to their disruptive and inappropriate behaviors. (e) Students may exhibit inappropriate behaviors that have not been targeted for behavior change.

Solutions to these concerns include randomizing reinforcers as well as using components of the interdependent contingency.

Dependent Group-Oriented Contingency

A dependent group-oriented contingency provides reinforcement to the entire class based on one or a few students meeting a specified criterion. That is, the target student or students who exhibit disruptive behavior must meet a specified criterion (i.e., not calling out more than three times during math lesson) in order for the whole class to earn a reward. For example, the selected student(s) must not call-out more than three times during math. If the target student(s) do not call-out more than three times, reinforcement is delivered to the entire class.

One advantage of this strategy is that this contingency utilizes classmates to assist students in modifying their behavior, which may result in improved socialization and cooperation. Further, reinforcement is also delivered to either the entire class or not at all, requiring minimal teacher time. In addition, students who may be rejected socially have the opportunity to earn positive peer attention. The dependent contingency is recommended when only one or a couple of students’ behavior is of concern.

Limitations of this strategy include the focus on one or a couple of students, which may result in threats and/or social punishment from peers when the criterion is not met. In addition, students may take pleasure in ruining the contingency program rather than working together toward a mutual goal. A solution to targeting one student is to randomly select a student from the class. The teacher puts the name of each student in a jar and randomly chooses one name and determines if that student’s performance meets the criterion for reinforcement. If so, then the entire class is rewarded.

Maximizing Effectiveness

Randomize criteria.

Teachers may randomize criteria for reinforcement, individual students, and reinforcers to maximize success and avoid some of the limitations of group contingencies.This will require each student to modify his or her overall behavior, since each student will not know specifically what or who will be chosen (i.e., criteria, student). For example, a student’s name and criteria can be written on a note card (i.e., class average, the student with the highest or lowest performance) for reinforcement and then the note cards can be combined in a jar. Alternatively, one jar can be used for “Names,” one jar used for “Criteria,” and another for “Reward.” Any combination of jars can be used for determining reinforcement.

Randomize reinforcers.

Teachers can poll their students to determine what types of rewards the students would like to earn for complying with the contingency program. Teachers can then incorporate all or some of the student suggestions and randomize them by, for example, placing each idea on a note card and then placing the note card in a jar. By combining and randomizing reinforcers that are enticing to the entire class it is less likely that the contingency program will be deliberately sabotaged because a student did not like the selected reinforcer. The rationale is that students are working toward an unknown yet desirable reinforcer.

Employing randomization.

Implementation of the group contingencies with randomization may be used in the following manner: students should be informed of behaviors that will be modified, the criteria for reinforcement (i.e., overriding criterion is five or fewer checks), and the reinforcers that they may earn. Reinforcers should include student suggestions. The new classroom rules, stated in a clear and positive manner, should be posted in order to serve as a reminder. The teacher should have a sheet of paper with each student’s name written on it. At any point during the specified time period (i.e., math) that students fail to comply with the classroom rules, the teacher will place a check next to that student’s name. At the end of the specified time interval (i.e., math), the teacher will randomly select one note card from one of the jars. For example, if each component of the interdependent group contingency (i.e., class average, performance of the entire class) and names were combined in a “Criteria” jar and a student’s name were selected, the performance of that particular student will determine whether the class will receive reinforcement. In other words, if the student met the overriding criterion (i.e., five or fewer checks), the class will be eligible to earn a reinforcer. The teacher will then randomly select a reinforcer from the “Reward” jar. If the criterion were not met, then the teacher should state that the student did not earn the opportunity to obtain a reinforcer.

Modifications

Group contingencies are fairly easy to employ, are time and cost efficient for teachers, and are effective in improving classroom behavior. However, what if a student continues to exhibit problem behavior despite the established classroom rules, limits, and behavioral expectations? If the behavior management strategy has been implemented for a considerable amount of time (i.e., approximately two weeks) and the behavior affects the academic and/or social functioning of the student or others, the teacher may wish to alter the treatment plan. This could be accomplished by adding new intervention components to the already established group contingency. For example, the classroom teacher may consider communicating with the student’s parents regarding the behavior of concern and collaborate on home/school strategies to improve it. Alternatively, an individual treatment plan (versus the group contingency) addressing the particular behavioral concerns may also be developed by the teacher or with the help of the school psychologist.

A particularly attractive aspect of group contingencies is that they may be implemented for the entire class regardless of whether some students also have individualized behavior plans. If the goal is to modify overall classroom behavior, then children with individualized programs may also engage in the group contingency.

Resources

Axelrod, S. (1998). How to use group contingencies: How to manage series (2nd ed.).

Austin, TX: Pro Ed. ISBN: 0890797609.

Axelrod, S., & Hall, R. V. (1999). Behavior modification: Basic principles (2nd ed.).

Austin, TX: ProEd. ISBN: 0890798044.

Daniels, V. (n.d.) How to manage disruptive behavior in inclusive classrooms. Available from:www.teachervision.com/lesson-plans/lesson-2943.html (Family Education Network).

Jenson, W. R., Rhode, G., & Reavis, H. K. (1994). The tough kid tool box. Longmont,

CO: Sopris West. ISBN: 1570350000.

Kazdin, A. E. (2001). Behavior modification in applied settings (6th ed.). Belmont, CA:

Wadsworth. ISBN: 0534348998.

Rhode, G., Jenson, W. R., & Reavis, H. K. (1996). The tough kid book: Practical classroom management strategies (6th ed.). Longmont, CO: Sopris West. ISBN: 0944584543.

What You Need to Know About Special Education

Editor’s Note

This article was originally published by the National Association of School Psychologists in Helping Children at Home and School II: Handouts for Families and Educators (2004).

Conflict Resolution From the Inside Out

By Rebecca Carman, LCSW for GuidanceChannel.com of Sunburst Visual Media

Last night at 2am I awoke to the sound of shouting. In the apartment next to mine a couple was screaming obscenities at each other at the top of their lungs. Skimming the paper over breakfast I came across this news flash: two grown men stab each other multiple times. The cause of their inflamed passions? A bag of chips—and a small one at that!

In the fall of 2005, I was approached about creating a resource about conflict resolution for teenagers, I accepted the project with excitement, but also with trepidation. First of all, as attested to by my last 24 hours, conflict seems to have reached epidemic proportions. Disputes escalate more and more quickly, more virulently, practically out of thin air. Is it just a New York City thing, or is our populace on edge, ready to lose it in barely a millisecond?

I felt humbled by the scale of the problem, how difficult and even frightening it can be for educators and therapists on the front lines. To say nothing of the fact that excellent resources about conflict resolution already abound. Bookstores devote entire sections to the topic, catalogues overflow with offerings, professionals serve up an endless stream of seminars and workshops. What could I contribute that would be new, something truly of use for practitioners interacting with teens on a day to day basis?

I set about interviewing my friends and colleagues, and an answer began to take shape. “Those resources are great,” they said. “But we tried them. They don’t seem to work for our kids.” As I probed further, I began to suspect a gap in the conflict resolution literature. A new resource seemed to be called for--one that specifically targeted the challenges presented by at-risk youth. Something to help teens at the “conflict resolution table” who happened to bring along emotional difficulties; extensive histories of trauma, abandonment and loss; non-existent role modeling; scant hope for the future; poor self-esteem; chronic deprivation and poverty; and/or a mindset glorifying violence and aggression. Workers in schools and clinics and youth programs sought an easy-to-use, hands-on, affordable resource that would be directly relevant to their world—a world of very real, intractable problems and seriously challenging kids.

So these were my marching orders. Conflict Resolution from the Inside Out: Helping Teens Handle Conflict in the Real World should be a resource that would not just impart skills and knowledge—but would help practitioners actually build capacities in teens. I envisioned a resource that would promote the healing and emotional growth needed by teens in order to handle conflict well. At the same time, this resource needed to be fully accessible to non-clinicians (as so often, it is the paraprofessionals and aides and residential workers carrying the Herculean burden of working with our most troubled youth).

I knew from doing my last book for The Bureau for At-Risk Youth (Helping Kids Heal: 75 Activities to Help Children Recover from Trauma and Loss) that as much as New York City has its share of struggling children, it is also blessed with a cadre of extraordinarily talented, committed staff working on their behalf. What did they think were the underlying issues affecting teens’ ability to handle conflict? What activities had they found/devised/heard about/improvised—that had been most effective?

I interviewed staff from every discipline I could think of, including counselors running anger management groups at Rikers, a mediation group in Crown Heights, trauma education trainers who responded after 9/11, supervisors at analytic institutes, teachers in Bronx public schools, nationally-sought-after corporate facilitators and mediators, social workers running theater groups, editors of a magazine written by foster kids, art therapists at a city hospital, and many, many more. Their responses were nothing short of remarkable, and comprise much of the key content in CRIO. These include activities (complete with scenarios and vignettes) to help teens understand how past experiences influence responses to conflict, gain control over emotions and thoughts when entering charged situations, and expand their ability for reflection, perspective and creativity.

Going back to events of the past 24 hours….I still find myself feeling a bit agitated, frustrated, saddened, and helpless—and these weren’t even my conflicts! And most of us can relate to the misery felt after an argument goes awry—the self-reproach, the cold sand feeling in the bones, the sense of just wanting to throw in the darn towel. If we as practitioners can make even the tiniest inroads in helping teens to handle conflict more successfully, we perform a tremendous service that can help them over their entire lives. Not only will their emotional well-being be dramatically improved but their overall functioning—in school, in relationships, in physical health—will benefit as well. These positive but invisible ripple effects—the arguments not had, the aggression not acted upon—are what we depend upon for peace within our own minds, homes, neighborhoods, workplaces, and greater community.

When folks discovered I was working on a resource about conflict resolution, they would say more often than not: “Oh, I need that book!” And I secretly harbored the same thought myself: the more I can learn about this crucial topic, the better, and not just for my professional life, but for me, my own life, my own relationships. I’m not sure if it was the topic, or its timing, but the creation of CRIO has been one of the most personally meaningful and enriching projects I have ever worked on. At its roots, the endeavor of teaching conflict resolution has a spiritual dimension; the people who became this book’s contributors I found to be, on some level, profound. I only hope the pages of CRIO do justice to the striking collective wisdom I encountered along the way.

More About Conflict Resolution From The Inside Out

This innovative reproducible activity book not only teaches practical skills for handling conflicts, it also addresses the many underlying issues that influence how a teen approaches such situations. Role plays featuring contemporary, edgy scenarios inspire candid discussions and help participants to recognize the power they have over the outcome of those conflicts. Also featured are thought-provoking writing exercises, cathartic art projects, and many other engaging activities that will teach teens how to effectively and creatively manage the conflicts they face in the real world.

Click hereto find out how you can order this book today!